Preface ................................................................... xi
List of figures ......................................................... xiii
List of tables and boxes ................................................ xvii
1. Introduction ........................................................... 1
1.1 The challenge ...................................................... 1
1.2 Motivation to write this book ...................................... 2
1.3 What is environmental modelling and how can GIS and remote
sensing help in environmental modelling ............................ 3
1.4 Contents of the book ............................................... 6
1.5 References ......................................................... 7
2. Taxonomy of environmental models in the spatial sciences ............... 8
2.1 Introduction ....................................................... 8
2.2 Taxonomy of models ................................................. 9
2.3 Models of logic ................................................... 10
2.3.1 Deductive models ............................................ 10
2.3.2 Inductive models ............................................ 11
2.3.3 Discussion .................................................. 14
2.4 Deterministic models .............................................. 15
2.4.1 Empirical models ............................................ 15
2.4.2 Knowledge driven models ..................................... 18
2.4.3 Process driven models ....................................... 20
2.5 Stochastic models ................................................. 21
2.6 Conclusion ........................................................ 23
2.7 References ........................................................ 23
3. New environmental remote sensing systems .............................. 26
3.1 Introduction ...................................................... 26
3.2 High spatial resolution sensors ................................... 27
3.2.1 Historical overview ......................................... 27
3.2.2 Overview sensors ............................................ 28
3.2.3 IRS-lC and IRS-1D ........................................... 28
3.2.4 KVR-1000 .................................................... 29
3.2.5 OrbView-3 ................................................... 29
3.2.6 Ikonos ...................................................... 29
3.2.7 QuickBird ................................................... 30
3.2.8 Eros ........................................................ 30
3.2.9 Applications and perspectives ............................... 31
3.3 High spectral resolution satellites ............................... 31
3.3.1 Historical overview ......................................... 31
3.3.2 Overview hyperspectral imaging sensors ...................... 33
3.3.3 Applications and perspectives ............................... 35
3.4 High temporal resolution satellites ............................... 36
3.4.1 Low spatial resolution satellite system with high
revisiting time ............................................. 36
3.4.2 Medium spatial resolution satellite systems with
high revisiting time ........................................ 38
3.5 Radar ............................................................. 41
3.5.1 Historical overview ......................................... 41
3.5.2 Overview of sensors ......................................... 43
3.5.3 Applications and perspectives ............................... 46
3.6 Other systems ..................................................... 47
3.6.1 Altimetry ................................................... 47
3.6.2 Scatterometers/Spectrometers ................................ 47
3.6.3 Lidar ....................................................... 47
3.7 Internet sources .................................................. 48
3.7.1 High spatial resolution satellite systems ................... 48
3.7.2 High spectral resolution satellite systems .................. 48
3.7.3 High temporal resolution satellite systems .................. 48
3.7.4 RADAR satellite systems ..................................... 48
3.7.5 General sources of information .............................. 49
3.8 References ........................................................ 49
4. Geographic data for environmental modelling and assessment ............ 52
4.1 Introduction ..................................................... 52
4.2 Land-atmosphere interaction modelling ............................ 54
4.3 Ecosystems process modelling ..................................... 54
4.4 Hydrologic modelling ............................................. 55
4.5 Dynamic biosphere modelling ...................................... 55
4.6 Data access ...................................................... 56
4.7 Global databases ................................................. 57
4.7.1 Multiple-theme global databases ............................ 57
4.7.2 Heritage global land cover databases ....................... 58
4.7.3 Global land cover from satellite data ...................... 59
4.7.4 Topographic data ........................................... 60
4.7.5 Soils data ................................................. 61
4.7.6 Global population .......................................... 61
4.7.7 Satellite data ............................................. 61
4.8 Sub-global scale databases ....................................... 62
4.8.1 Regional land cover mapping ................................ 62
4.8.2 Topographic databases ...................................... 63
4.8.3 Administrative and census data ............................. 63
4.8.4 Data clearinghouses ........................................ 64
4.9 The role of the end-user in the USGS global land cover
characterization project ......................................... 65
4.10 Summary .......................................................... 66
4.11 References ....................................................... 67
5. The biosphere: a global perspective ................................... 70
5.1 Introduction ...................................................... 70
5.2 Historic overview ................................................. 71
5.3 Landsat based regional studies .................................... 73
5.3.1 The Large Area Crop Inventory Program ....................... 74
5.3.2 Tropical deforestation and habitat fragmentation ............ 75
5.4 AVHRR based regional and global studies ........................... 76
5.4.1 Sources of interference ..................................... 76
5.4.2 Desert margin studies ....................................... 80
5.4.3 Monitoring Desert Locust habitats ........................... 82
5.4.4 Land cover classification ................................... 84
5.4.5 ENSO ........................................................ 86
5.5 Wild fire detection ............................................... 88
5.6 Discussion ........................................................ 89
5.7 References ........................................................ 89
6. Vegetation mapping and monitoring ..................................... 97
6.1 Introduction ...................................................... 97
6.2 Vegetation mapping ................................................ 98
6.2.1 Historical overview ......................................... 98
6.2.2 Multispectral data and image classification ................. 99
6.2.3 Vegetation mapping, ancillary data and GIS ................. 100
6.2.4 Use of spatial and temporal patterns ....................... 107
6.2.5 New kinds of imagery ....................................... 109
6.2.6 Accuracy assessment ........................................ 111
6.3 Monitoring vegetation change ..................................... 113
6.3.1 Monitoring vegetation condition and health ................. 113
6.3.2 Vegetation conversion and change ........................... 115
6.4 Concluding comments .............................................. 116
6.5 References ....................................................... 116
7. Application of remote sensing and geographic information systems
in wildlife mapping and modelling .................................... 121
7.1 Introduction ..................................................... 121
7.2 Wildlife conservation and reserve management ..................... 122
7.3 Mapping wildlife distribution .................................... 123
7.4 Mapping wildlife resource requirements ........................... 125
7.5 Mapping and modelling habitat suitability for wildlife ........... 126
7.5.1 Habitats and habitat maps .................................. 126
7.5.2 Mapping suitability for wildlife ........................... 127
7.5.3 Accuracy of suitability maps ............................... 128
7.5.4 Factors influencing wildlife distribution .................. 130
7.6 Modelling species-environment relationships ...................... 131
7.6.1 Static versus dynamic models ............................... 133
7.6.2 Transferability of species - environment models ............ 135
7.7 Innovative mapping of wildlife and its physical environment ...... 135
7.8 Conclusions ...................................................... 136
7.9 References ....................................................... 137
8. Biodiversity mapping and modelling ................................... 145
8.1 Context .......................................................... 145
8.2 Definitions ...................................................... 145
8.3 Key issues ....................................................... 146
8.4 Mobilizing the data .............................................. 147
8.4.1 Attribute selection ........................................ 147
8.4.2 Sampling design ............................................ 148
8.4.3 Data capture ............................................... 148
8.4.4 Standards and quality assurance ............................ 149
8.4.5 Data custodianship and access .............................. 151
8.4.6 Data mining and harmonization .............................. 152
8.5 Tools and techniques ............................................. 152
8.5.1 Database management ........................................ 154
8.5.2 Geographic information systems ............................. 154
8.5.3 Distribution mapping tools ................................. 155
8.5.4 Environmental domain analysis .............................. 157
8.5.5 Environmental assessment and decision support .............. 158
8.6 Display and communication ........................................ 159
8.7 Future developments .............................................. 160
8.8 References and information resources ............................. 160
8.9 Tools and technologies ........................................... 163
9. Approaches to spatially distributed hydrological modelling in a
GIS environment ...................................................... 166
9.1 Basic hydrological processes and modelling approaches ............ 166
9.1.1 The hydrological cycle ..................................... 167
9.1.2 Modelling approaches ....................................... 172
9.2 Data for spatially distributed hydrological modelling ............ 173
9.2.1 Vegetation ................................................. 174
9.2.2 Modelling vegetation growth ................................ 178
9.2.3 Topography ................................................. 179
9.2.4 Soil ....................................................... 181
9.2.5 Climate .................................................... 182
9.3 The land surface - atmosphere interface .......................... 184
9.3.1 Estimation of potential evaporation ........................ 184
9.3.2 Estimation of actual evaporation and evapotranspiration .... 187
9.4 The distribution of surface flow in digital elevation models ..... 189
9.4.1 Estimation of topographic form for ‘undisturbed’ surface
facets ..................................................... 192
9.5 Estimation of subsurface flow .................................... 193
9.5.1 Estimation of subsurface unsaturated flow .................. 194
9.5.2 Estimation of subsurface saturated flow .................... 195
9.6 Summary .......................................................... 195
9.7 References ....................................................... 196
10. Remote sensing and geographic information systems for natural
disaster management .................................................. 200
10.1 Introduction .................................................... 200
10.2 Disaster management ............................................. 206
10.3 Remote sensing and GIS: tools in disaster management ............ 207
10.3.1 Introduction ............................................. 207
10.3.2 Application levels at different scales ................... 208
10.4 Examples of the use of GIS and remote sensing in hazard
assessment ...................................................... 210
10.4.1 Floods ................................................... 210
10.4.2 Earthquakes .............................................. 212
10.4.3 Volcanic eruptions ....................................... 215
10.4.4 Landslides ............................................... 217
10.4.5 Fires .................................................... 218
10.4.6 Cyclones ................................................. 219
10.4.7 Environmental hazards .................................... 220
10.5 Conclusions ..................................................... 221
10.6 References ...................................................... 222
11. Land use planning and environmental impact assessment using
geographic information systems ....................................... 227
11.1 Introduction .................................................... 227
11.2 GIS in land use planning activities ............................. 229
11.3 Sources and types of spatial data sets .......................... 230
11.3.1 Land topography .......................................... 230
11.3.2 Soils .................................................... 231
11.3.3 Land use/cover ........................................... 232
11.4 Land evaluation methods ......................................... 234
11.4.1 Conventional approaches .................................. 234
11.4.2 Quantitative approaches .................................. 236
11.4.3 Site suitability analysis ................................ 238
11.4.4 Standard land evaluation systems ......................... 238
11.5 Land use planning activities at regional and global scales ...... 239
11.6 Availability and distribution of spatial data sets .............. 242
11.7 Reliability of GIS-based land use planning results .............. 243
11.8 Summary and conclusions ......................................... 244
11.9 References ...................................................... 245
12. Environmental modelling: issues and discussion ....................... 252
12.1 Introduction .................................................... 252
12.2 Geo-information related questions in environmental management ... 252
12.3 Problems raised by the participants ............................. 254
12.3.1 Data problems ............................................ 254
12.3.2 Modelling problems ....................................... 255
12.3.3 GIS and remote sensing technology problems ............... 255
12.3.4 Expertise problems ....................................... 256
12.4 Proposed solutions for problems by participants ................. 256
12.4.1 Data solutions ........................................... 256
12.4.2 Modelling solutions ...................................... 257
12.4.3 GIS and RS technology solutions .......................... 257
12.4.4 Expertise solutions ...................................... 258
12.4.5 General solutions ........................................ 258
12.5 Reflection ...................................................... 258
12.6 References ...................................................... 259
Index .................................................................... 260
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