Preface to the Second Edition ............................... xi Preface to the First Edition .............................. xiii Part One DEFINITIONS AND RESOURCES Chapter 1 HISTORY, DEFINITIONS, AND TERMINOLOGY .............................. 1 1.1.0 INTRODUCTION ................................................. 1 1.2.0 HISTORICAL ASPECTS ........................................... 3 1.3.0 DEFINITIONS AND TERMINOLOGY .................................. 8 1.3.1 The Atmosphere ........................................ 13 1.3.2 Water Systems ......................................... 16 1.3.3 Land Systems .......................................... 16 1.4.0 ECOLOGICAL CYCLES ........................................... 18 1.5.0 SUMMARY ..................................................... 22 1.6.0 PROBLEMS .................................................... 22 1.7.0 REFERENCES .................................................. 25 Chapter 2 RESOURCES AND RESOURCE UTILIZATION ................................ 29 2.1.0 INTRODUCTION ................................................ 29 2.2.0 FOSSIL FUEL RESOURCES ....................................... 36 2.2.1 Coal .................................................. 37 2.2.2 Petroleum ............................................. 39 2.2.3 Natural Gas ........................................... 40 2.3.0 OTHER ENERGY RESOURCES ...................................... 43 2.4.0 MINERAL RESOURCES ........................................... 44 2.5.0 RESOURCE UTILIZATION ........................................ 48 2.6.0 ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS ....................................... 50 2.7.0 SUMMARY ..................................................... 59 2.8.0 PROBLEMS .................................................... 60 2.9.0 REFERENCES .................................................. 64 Part II ECOSYSTEMS Chapter 3 LAND SYSTEMS ...................................................... 73 3.1.0 INTRODUCTION ................................................ 73 3.2.0 MINERALS .................................................... 74 3.3.0 SEDIMENTARY STRATA .......................................... 77 3.4.0 CLAYS ....................................................... 78 3.5.0 SOIL ........................................................ 80 3.5.1 Inorganic Matter ...................................... 83 3.5.2 Organic Matter ........................................ 83 3.5.3 Nutrients ............................................. 85 3.5.4 Water ................................................. 88 3.6.0 SUMMARY ..................................................... 89 3.7.0 PROBLEMS .................................................... 90 3.8.0 REFERENCES .................................................. 91 Chapter 4 WATER SYSTEMS ..................................................... 93 4.1.0 INTRODUCTION ................................................ 93 4.2.0 PROPERTIES ................................................. 100 4.2.1 Gases ................................................ 104 4.2.2 Acidity and Alkalinity ............................... 106 4.2.3 Chemical Species ..................................... 107 4.3.0 AQUATIC ORGANISMS .......................................... 109 4.3.1 Algae ................................................ 109 4.3.2 Bacteria ............................................. 110 4.3.3 Fungi ................................................ 110 4.3.4 General Effects ...................................... 111 4.4.0 BIODEGRADATION PROCESSES ................................... 112 4.5.0 SUMMARY .................................................... 114 4.6.0 PROBLEMS ................................................... 114 4.7.0 REFERENCES ................................................. 116 Chapter 5 THE ATMOSPHERE ................................................... 119 5.1.0 INTRODUCTION ............................................... 119 5.2.0 COMPOSITION AND CHARACTER .................................. 120 5.2.1 Structure ............................................ 121 5.2.2 Oxygen/Ozone ......................................... 123 5.2.3 Nitrogen ............................................. 129 5.2.4 Other Gases .......................................... 129 5.2.5 Particulate Matter ................................... 131 5.3.0 DISPERSION EFFECTS ......................................... 132 5.4.0 SUMMARY .................................................... 134 5.5.0 PROBLEMS ................................................... 134 5.6.0 REFERENCES ................................................. 136 Part III CHEMICAL WASTE AND WASTE MANAGEMENT Chapter 6 CHEMICAL WASTE ................................................... 141 6.1.0 INTRODUCTION ............................................... 141 6.2.0 CLASSIFICATION ............................................. 143 6.2.1 Hazardous Waste ...................................... 144 6.2.1.2 Corrosive Materials .......................... 148 6.2.1.3 Reactive Materials ........................... 149 6.2.1.4 Toxic Materials .............................. 150 6.2.1.5 Radioactive Materials ........................ 156 6.2.1.6 Other Classifications ........................ 158 6.2.2 Nonhazardous Waste ................................... 160 6.3.0 SUMMARY .................................................... 161 6.4.0 PROBLEMS ................................................... 161 6.5.0 REFERENCES ................................................. 163 Chapter 7 CHEMICAL WASTE MANAGEMENT AND BIODEGRADATION OF WASTE ............ 167 7.1.0 INTRODUCTION ............................................... 167 7.2.0 CHEMICAL METHODS ........................................... 174 7.2.1 Neutralization ....................................... 174 7.2.2 Precipitation ........................................ 175 7.2.3 Ion exchange ......................................... 176 7.2.4 Oxidation-reduction .................................. 176 7.2.5 Extraction and Leaching .............................. 177 7.3.0 BIOREMEDIATION ............................................. 178 7.3.1 Solid Phase Bioremediation ........................... 183 7.3.2 Soil Heaping ......................................... 184 7.3.3 Composting ........................................... 184 7.3.4 In Situ Bioremediation ............................... 184 7.4.0 SUMMARY .................................................... 185 7.5.0 PROBLEMS ................................................... 185 7.6.0 REFERENCES ................................................. 186 Chapter 8 PHYSICAL AND THERMAL METHODS OF WASTE MANAGEMENT ................. 189 8.1.0 INTRODUCTION ............................................... 189 8.2.0 PHYSICAL METHODS ........................................... 190 8.2.1 Phase Separation ..................................... 191 8.2.2 Phase Transfer ....................................... 192 8.2.3 Phase Transition ..................................... 195 8.2.4 Phase Conversion ..................................... 197 8.2.5 Membrane Separations ................................. 198 8.3.0 THERMAL METHODS ............................................ 201 8.3.1 Incineration ......................................... 202 8.3.2 Thermal Desorption ................................... 206 8.3.3 Pyrolysis ............................................ 206 8.4.0 SOLIDIFICATION AND STABILIZATION ........................... 207 8.5.0 SUMMARY .................................................... 208 8.6.0 PROBLEMS ................................................... 208 8.7.0 REFERENCES ................................................. 209 Chapter 9 WASTE RECYCLING AND DISPOSAL ..................................... 213 9.1.0 INTRODUCTION ............................................... 213 9.2.0 WASTE RECYCLING ............................................ 213 9.3.0 WASTE DISPOSAL ............................................. 216 9.3.1 Surface Disposal ..................................... 217 9.3.2 Underground Disposal ................................. 219 9.3.3 In-situ Disposal ..................................... 220 9.4.0 ABANDONED DISPOSAL SITES ................................... 222 9.5.0 RADIOACTIVE WASTE MANAGEMENT ............................... 222 9.6.0 SUMMARY .................................................... 225 9.7.0 PROBLEMS ................................................... 225 9.8.0 REFERENCES ................................................. 226 Chapter 10 SOURCES AND EFFECTS OF GASEOUS EMISSIONS ......................... 229 10.1.0 INTRODUCTION .............................................. 229 10.2.0 FOSSIL FUEL SOURCES ....................................... 232 10.2.1 Coal ............................................... 234 10.2.2 Petroleum .......................................... 240 10.2.3 Natural Gas ........................................ 243 10.3.0 OTHER SOURCES ............................................. 244 10.3.1 Industrial Stationary Emission Sources ............. 244 10.3.2 Non-Industrial Stationary Emission Sources ......... 244 10.3.3 Mobile Emission Sources ............................ 245 10.4.0 EFFECTS ................................................... 245 10.4.1 Acid Rain .......................................... 246 10.4.2 The Greenhouse Effect .............................. 249 10.4.3 Smog ............................................... 252 10.5.0 SUMMARY ................................................... 253 10.6.0 PROBLEMS .................................................. 254 10.7.0 REFERENCES ................................................ 255 Chapter 11 CONTROL OF GASEOUS EMISSIONS ..................................... 259 11.1.0 INTRODUCTION .............................................. 259 11.2.0 METHODS ................................................... 261 11.2.1 Stationary Sources ................................. 262 11.2.2 Mobile Sources ..................................... 262 11.3.0 EMISSION CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES ............................. 265 11.3.1 Integrated Technologies ............................ 265 11.3.2 Add-on Technologies ................................ 267 11.4.0 SUMMARY ................................................... 277 11.5.0 PROBLEMS .................................................. 278 11.6.0 REFERENCES ................................................ 279 Part IV REGULATIONS AND THE FUTURE Chapter 12 ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATIONS ........................................ 285 12.1.0 INTRODUCTION .............................................. 285 12.2.0 LEGISLATION ............................................... 286 12.2.1 The Clean Air Act Amendments ...................... 286 12.2.2 The Water Pollution Control Act (The Clean Water Act) ............................. 288 12.2.3 Safe Drinking Water Act ........................... 289 12.2.4 The Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) ............................... 290 12.2.5 The Toxic Substances Control Act .................. 291 12.2.6 The Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA) .......... 292 12.2.7 The Occupational Safety and Health Act ............ 293 12.2.8 The National Environmental Policy Act ............. 293 12.2.9 The Oil Pollution Act ............................. 294 12.2.10 The Atomic Energy Act and Other Nuclear Waste Statutes ...................... 294 12.2.11 The Hazardous Materials Transportation Act ........ 295 12.3.0 GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE ............................... 295 12.4.0 SUMMARY ................................................... 298 12.5.0 PROBLEMS .................................................. 298 12.6.0 REFERENCES ................................................ 299 EPILOGUE ......................................................... 301 GLOSSARY ......................................................... 305 INDEX ............................................................ 323