SECTION I Overview Chapter 1 Introduction ..................................................... 3 1.1 The Hydrologic Cycle and the Quantity of Fresh Water ................... 3 1.2 Status of Fresh Water in the United States ............................. 7 1.3 Sources of Lake and Reservoir Problems ................................ 11 1.4 Restoration and Management of Lakes and Reservoirs .................... 13 1.5 History of Lake Restoration and Management ............................ 15 References ................................................................ 17 Chapter 2 Basic Limnology ................................................. 23 2.1 Introduction .......................................................... 23 2.2 Lakes and Reservoirs .................................................. 23 2.3 Basic Limnology ....................................................... 26 2.3.1 Physical-Chemical Limnology ..................................... 26 2.4 Biological Limnology .................................................. 28 2.5 Limiting Factors ...................................................... 30 2.6 The Eutrophication Process ............................................ 31 2.7 Characteristics of Shallow and Deep Lakes ............................. 33 2.8 Ecoregions and Attainable Lake Conditions ............................. 34 2.9 Summary ............................................................... 41 References ................................................................ 41 Chapter 3 Lake and Reservoir Diagnosis and Evaluation ..................... 47 3.1 Introduction .......................................................... 47 3.2 Diagnosis/Feasibility Studies ......................................... 47 3.2.1 Watershed ....................................................... 47 3.2.2 In-Lake ......................................................... 53 3.2.3 Data Evaluation ................................................. 57 3.2.3.1 Example 1 ............................................... 70 3.2.3.2 Example 2 ............................................... 71 3.3 Selection of Lake Restoration Alternatives ............................ 73 3.3.1 Algal Problems .................................................. 73 3.3.1.1 Nutrient Diversion/Advanced Waste Treatment ............. 73 3.3.3.1 P Inactivation .......................................... 73 3.3.3.2 Dilution/Flushing ....................................... 74 3.3.3.3 Lake Protection From Urban Runoff ....................... 74 3.3.3.4 Hypolimnetic Withdrawal ................................. 74 3.3.3.5 Artificial Circulation .................................. 74 3.3.3.6 Food-Web Manipulations .................................. 74 3.3.3.7 Copper Sulfate Treatment ................................ 74 3.3.4 Macrophyte Problems ............................................. 74 3.3.4.1 Harvesting .............................................. 75 3.3.4.2 Biological Controls ..................................... 75 3.3.4.3 Lake-Level Drawdown ..................................... 75 3.3.4.4 Sediment Covers ......................................... 75 3.3.4.5 Sediment Removal ........................................ 75 3.3.4.6 Hypolimnetic Aeration ................................... 75 3.5 Guidelines for Choosing Lake Restoration Alternatives ................. 76 3.6 The Lake Improvement Restoration Plan ................................. 78 References ................................................................ 80 SECTION II Algal Biomass Control Techniques Directed toward Control of Plankton Algae Chapter 4 Lake and Reservoir Response to Diversion and Advanced Wastewater Treatment ............................................ 89 4.1 General .............................................................. 89 4.2 Techniques for Reducing External Nutrient Loads ...................... 90 4.3 Recovery of World Lakes .............................................. 91 4.4 Lake Washington, Washington .......................................... 95 4.5 Lake Sammamish, Washington ........................................... 98 4.6 Lake Norrviken, Sweden .............................................. 100 4.7 Shagawa Lake, Minnesota ............................................. 101 4.8 Madison Lakes, Wisconsin ............................................ 103 4.8 Lake Zurich, Switzerland ............................................ 104 4.9 Lake Sobygaard, Denmark ............................................. 105 4.10 Costs ............................................................... 106 4.11 In-Lake Treatment Following Diversion ............................... 107 4.12 Summary ............................................................. 108 References ............................................................... 109 Chapter 5 Lake and Reservoir Protection From Non-Point Pollution ......... 113 5.1 Introduction ........................................................ 113 5.2 In-Stream Phosphorus Removal ........................................ 114 5.3 non-point Nutrient Source Controls: Introduction .................... 116 5.4 non-point Source Controls: Manure Management ........................ 119 5.5 non-point Nutrient Source Controls: Ponds and Wetlands .............. 122 5.5.1 Introduction .................................................. 122 5.5.2 Dry And Wet Extended Detention (ED) Ponds ..................... 122 5.5.3 Constructed Wetlands .......................................... 124 5.6 Constructed Wetlands: Case Histories ................................ 127 5.7 Pre-Dams ............................................................ 130 5.8 Riparian Zone Rehabilitation: Introduction .......................... 131 5.9 Riparian Zone Rehabilitaton Methods ................................. 132 5.10 Reservoir Shoreline Rehabilitation .................................. 135 5.11 Lakeshore Rehabilitation ............................................ 137 5.12 Summary ............................................................. 140 References ............................................................... 140 Chapter 6 Dilution and Flushing .......................................... 149 6.1 Introduction ......................................................... 149 6.2 Theory and Predictions ............................................... 150 6.3 Case Studies ......................................................... 151 6.3.1 Moses Lake ..................................................... 152 6.3.2 Green Lake ..................................................... 158 6.3.3 Lake Veluwe .................................................... 160 6.4 Summary: Effects, Applications, and Precautions ...................... 161 References ............................................................... 162 Chapter 7 Hypolimnetic Withdrawal ........................................ 165 7.1 Introduction ......................................................... 165 7.2 Test Cases ........................................................... 167 7.2.1 General Trends ................................................. 167 7.2.1 Specific Cases ................................................. 170 7.2.1.1 Mauen See .............................................. 170 7.2.1.2 Austrian Lakes ......................................... 170 7.2.1.3 U.S. Lakes ............................................. 171 7.2.1.4 Canada ................................................. 172 7.3 Costs ................................................................ 173 7.4 Adverse Effects ...................................................... 173 7.5 Summary .............................................................. 173 References ............................................................... 174 Chapter 8 Phosphorus Inactivation and Sediment Oxidation ................. 177 8.1 Introduction ......................................................... 177 8.2 Chemical Background .................................................. 178 8.2.1 Aluminum ....................................................... 178 8.2.2 Iron and Calcium ............................................... 180 8.3 Dose Determination and Application Techniques ........................ 182 8.3.1 Aluminum ....................................................... 182 8.3.2 Iron and Calcium ............................................... 191 8.3.3 Application Techniques for Alum ................................ 191 8.4 Effectiveness and Longevity of P Inactivation ........................ 195 8.4.1 Introduction ................................................... 195 8.4.2 Stratified Lake Cases .......................................... 195 8.4.2.1 Mirror and Shadow Lakes, Wisconsin (WI) ................ 200 8.4.2.2 West Twin Lake (WTL), Ohio ............................. 201 8.4.2.3 Kezar Lake, New Hampshire .............................. 203 8.4.2.4 Lake Morey, Vermont .................................... 204 8.4.3 Shallow, Unstratified Lake Cases ............................... 206 8.4.3.1 Long Lake, Kitsap County, Washington ................... 208 8.4.3.2 Campbell and Erie Lakes, Washington .................... 209 8.4.3.3 Green Lake, Washington ................................. 210 8.4.4 Reservoirs ..................................................... 211 8.4.5 Ponds .......................................................... 211 8.4.6 Iron Applications .............................................. 212 8.4.7 Calcium Applications to Hardwater Lakes ........................ 213 8.5 Problems that Limit Effectiveness of P Inactivation .................. 215 8.6 Negative Aspects ..................................................... 216 8.7 Costs ................................................................ 224 8.8 Sediment Oxidation ................................................... 224 8.8.1 Equipment and Application Rates ................................ 225 8.8.2 Lake Response .................................................. 225 8.8.3 Costs .......................................................... 228 8.8.4 Prospectus ..................................................... 228 References ............................................................... 230 Chapter 9 Biomanipulation ................................................ 239 9.1 Introduction ......................................................... 239 9.2 Trophic Cascade ...................................................... 239 9.3 Basic Trophic Cascade Research ....................................... 243 9.4 Biomanipulation ...................................................... 244 9.5 Shallow Lakes ........................................................ 245 9.6 Biomanipulation: Shallow Lakes ....................................... 247 9.6.1 Cockshoot Broad (UK) ........................................... 247 9.6.2 Lake Zwemlust (and Other Dutch Lakes) .......................... 248 9.6.3 Lake Vaeng (and other Danish Lakes) ............................ 250 9.6.4 Lake Christina, Minnesota ...................................... 250 9.7 Biomanipulation: Deep Lakes .......................................... 252 9.7.1 Lake Mendota, Wisconsin ........................................ 252 9.7.2 Bautzen Reservoir And Grafenheim Experimental Lakes (Germany) ...................................................... 253 9.8 Costs ................................................................ 255 9.9 Summary and Conclusions .............................................. 255 References ............................................................... 256 Chapter 10 Copper Sulfate ................................................ 263 10.1 Introduction ........................................................ 263 10.2 Principle of Copper Sulfate Applications ............................ 263 10.3 Application Guidelines .............................................. 265 10.4 Effectiveness of Copper Sulfate ..................................... 266 10.5 Negative Effects of Copper Sulfate .................................. 267 10.6 Costs of Copper Sulfate ............................................. 269 References ............................................................... 270 SECTION III Macrophyte Biomass Control Chapter 11 Macrophyte Ecology and Lake Management ........................ 275 11.1 Introduction ........................................................ 275 11.2 Planning and Monitoring for Aquatic Plant Management ................ 275 11.2.1 Case Study: White River Lake Aquatic Plant Management Plan ......................................................... 276 11.3 Species and Life-Form Considerations ................................ 280 11.4 Aquatic Plant Growth and Productivity ............................... 281 11.4.1 Light ........................................................ 281 11.4.2 Nutrients .................................................... 282 11.4.3 Dissolved Inorganic Carbon (DIC), pH, and Oxygen (O2) ........ 283 11.4.4 Substrate .................................................... 284 11.4.5 Temperature .................................................. 284 11.5 Plant Distribution within Lakes ..................................... 285 11.6 Resource Allocation and Phenology ................................... 285 11.7 Reproduction and Survival Strategies ................................ 286 11.8 Relationships with Other Organisms .................................. 287 11.9 The Effects of Macrophytes on Their Environment ..................... 289 References ............................................................... 291 Chapter 12 Plant Community Restoration ................................... 295 12.1 Introduction ........................................................ 295 12.2 The "Do Nothing" Approach ........................................... 296 12.2.1 Case history: Lake Wingra, "Doing Nothing" ................... 297 12.3 The Habitat Alteration Approach ..................................... 298 12.3.1 Case History: No-Motor, Slow-No-Wake Regulations ............. 299 12.3.1.1 Long and Big Green Lakes: Heavily Used Recreational Lakes in Southeastern Wisconsin ........ 299 12.3.1.2 Active Habitat Manipulation: Engineering and Biomanipulation Case Studies ........................ 300 12.4 Aquascaping ......................................................... 307 12.5 The Founder Colony: A Reasonable Restoration Approach ............... 315 12.5.1 Case Studies ................................................. 316 12.5.1.1 Founder Colonies in North Lake, Lake Lewisville, and Lake Conroe, Texas and Guntersville Reservoir, Alabama ..................... 316 12.5.1.2 Cootes Paradise Marsh: Volunteers in Action ......... 317 12.5.1.3 Rice Lake at Milltown, Wisconsin: Lessons Learned ............................................. 317 12.6 Concluding Thoughts ................................................. 321 References ............................................................... 321 Chapter 13 Water Level Drawdown .......................................... 325 13.1 Introduction ........................................................ 325 13.2 Methods ............................................................. 325 13.3 Positive and Negative Factors of Water Level Drawdown ............... 330 13.4 Case Studies ........................................................ 332 13.4.1 Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) Reservoirs .................. 332 13.4.2 Louisiana Reservoirs ......................................... 333 13.4.3 Florida ...................................................... 333 13.4.4 Wisconsin .................................................... 334 13.4.5 Connecticut .................................................. 337 13.4.6 Oregon ....................................................... 337 13.5 Fish Management with Water Level Drawdown ........................... 337 13.6 Case Histories ...................................................... 337 13.7 Summary ............................................................. 339 References ............................................................... 339 Chapter 14 Preventive, Manual, and Mechanical Methods .................... 343 14.1 Introduction ........................................................ 343 14.2 Preventive Approaches ............................................... 343 14.2.1 The Probabilities of Invasion ............................... 344 14.2.2 Education, Enforcement, and Monitoring as Preventive Approaches .................................................. 346 14.2.3 Barriers and Sanitation ..................................... 346 14.3 Manual Methods and Soft Technologies ................................ 348 14.4 Mechanical Methods .................................................. 349 14.4.1 The Materials Handling Problem .............................. 349 14.4.2 Machinery and Equipment ..................................... 350 14.4.3 Cutting ..................................................... 352 14.4.3.1 Case Study: Water chestnut (Trapa natans) Management in New York, Maryland, and Vermont ............................................ 352 14.4.3.2 Case Study: Pre-Emptive Cutting to Manage Curly-Leaf Pondweed (Potamogeton crispus) in Minnesota ....................................... 353 14.4.3.3 Case Study: Deep Cutting, Fish Lake, Wisconsin .......................................... 353 14.4.3.4 Case Study: Cutting the Emergents, Cattails (Typha spp.) and Reeds (Phragmites spp.) ........... 355 14.4.4 Harvesting .................................................. 355 14.4.4.1 Efficacy, Regrowth, and Change in Community Structure .......................................... 355 14.4.4.2 The Nutrient Removal Question ...................... 358 14.4.4.3 Environmental Effects .............................. 362 14.4.4.4 Operational Challenges ............................. 365 14.4.5 Shredding and Crushing ...................................... 365 14.4.6 Diver-Operated Suction Dredges .............................. 366 14.4.7 Hydraulic Washing ........................................... 367 14.4.8 Weed Rollers: Automated, Untended Aquatic Plant Control Devices ............................................. 367 14.4.9 Mechanical Derooting ........................................ 368 14.4.10 Costs and Productivity ...................................... 369 14.5 Concluding Remarks .................................................. 374 References ............................................................... 375 Chapter 15 Sediment Covers and Surface Shading for Macrophyte Control ....................................................... 381 15.1 Introduction ........................................................ 381 15.2 Comparison of Synthetic Sediment Covers ............................. 381 15.2.1 Polyethylene ................................................. 381 15.2.2 Polypropylene ................................................ 382 15.2.3 Aquascreen ................................................... 383 15.2.4 Burlap ....................................................... 383 15.3 Application Procedures for Sediment Covers .......................... 384 15.4 Shading of Macrophytes with Surface Covers .......................... 384 References ............................................................... 385 Chapter 16 Chemical Controls ............................................. 387 16.1 Introduction ........................................................ 387 16.2 Effective Concentration - Dose, Time Considerations, Active Ingredients, Site-Specific Factors, and Herbicide Formulation ......................................................... 387 16.3 Types of Chemicals .................................................. 388 16.3.1 Contact vs. Systemic ......................................... 389 16.3.2 Broad-spectrum vs. Selective Herbicides ...................... 390 16.3.3 Persistent vs. Non-Persistent ................................ 390 16.3.4 Tank Mixes ................................................... 390 16.3.5 Plant Growth Regulators (PGRs) ............................... 390 16.3.6 Adjuvants .................................................... 391 16.4 Increasing Herbicide Selectivity .................................... 391 16.5 Environmental Impacts, Safety and Health Considerations ............. 393 16.5.1 Herbicide Fate in the Environment ............................ 393 16.5.2 Toxic Effects ................................................ 394 16.5.2.1 Direct Effects ....................................... 395 16.5.2.2 Indirect Impacts ..................................... 397 16.5.2.3 What Should a Lake Manager or Concerned Citizen Do? .......................................... 399 16.6 Ways of Minimizing Environmental Risks .............................. 399 16.7 Case Studies ........................................................ 401 16.7.1 Plant Management with Fluridone in the Northern United States ....................................................... 401 16.7.1.1 Minnesota Experiences ............................... 401 16.7.1.2 Wisconsin Experiences - Potters and Random Lakes ............................................... 404 16.7.1.3 Michigan Experiences ................................ 406 16.7.1.4 Vermont Experiences - Lake Hortonia and Burr Pond ................................................ 409 16.7.1.5 Increasers and Decreasers ........................... 412 16.7.2 2,4-D in Cayuga Lake, New York and Loon Lake, Washington State ............................................. 412 16.7.2.1 Cayuga Lake ......................................... 412 16.7.2.2 Loon Lake ........................................... 414 16.7.3 Triclopyr in Pend Oreille River, Washington State and Lake Minnetonka, Minnesota ................................... 415 16.7.3.1 Pend Oreille River .................................. 415 16.7.3.2 Lake Minnetonka ..................................... 417 16.8 Costs ............................................................... 418 16.9 Concluding Remarks .................................................. 418 References ............................................................... 420 Chapter 17 Phytophagous Insects, Fish, and Other Biological Controls ..................................................... 425 17.1 Introduction ........................................................ 425 17.2 Hydrilla (Hydrilla verticillata) .................................... 426 17.3 Water Hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) ............................... 427 17.4 Alligatorweed (Alternanthera philoxeroides) ......................... 429 17.5 Eurasian Watermilfoil (Myriophyllum spicatum) ....................... 430 17.6 Grass Carp .......................................................... 433 17.6.1 History and Restrictions ..................................... 433 17.6.2 Biology of Grass Carp ........................................ 434 17.6.3 Reproduction of Grass Carp ................................... 435 17.6.4 Stocking Rates ............................................... 438 17.6.5 Case Histories ............................................... 440 17.6.5.1 Deer Point Lake, Florida ............................ 440 17.6.5.2 Lake Conway, Florida ................................ 442 17.6.5.3 Lake Conroe, Texas .................................. 442 17.6.5.4 Smaller Lakes and Ponds ............................. 443 17.6.6 Water Quality Changes ........................................ 443 17.7 Other Phytophagous Fish ............................................. 445 17.8 Developing Areas of Macrophyte and Algae Management ................. 446 17.8.1 Fungal Pathogens ............................................. 446 17.8.2 Water hyacinth ............................................... 446 17.8.3 Hydrilla ..................................................... 447 17.8.4 Eurasian Watermilfoil ........................................ 447 17.8.5 Allelopathic Substances ...................................... 447 17.8.6 Plant Growth Regulators ...................................... 448 17.8.7 Barley Straw ................................................. 448 17.8.8 Reducing Algae Growth with Bacteria .......................... 448 17.8.9 Viruses for Blue-Green Algae Management ...................... 449 References ............................................................... 449 SECTION IV Multiple Benefit Treatments Chapter 18 Hypolimnetic Aeration and Oxygenation ......................... 459 18.1 Introduction ........................................................ 459 18.2 Description and Operation of Units .................................. 459 18.3 Unit Sizing ......................................................... 464 18.4 Beneficial Effects and Limitations .................................. 465 18.5 Undesirable Effects ................................................. 470 18.6 Costs ............................................................... 470 18.7 Summary ............................................................. 470 References ............................................................... 471 Chapter 19 Artificial Circulation ........................................ 475 19.1 Introduction ........................................................ 475 19.2 Devices and Air Quantities .......................................... 475 19.3 Theoretical Effects of Circulation .................................. 483 19.3.1 Dissolved Oxygen (DO) ........................................ 483 19.3.2 Nutrients .................................................... 483 19.3.3 Physical Control of Phytoplankton Biomass .................... 484 19.3.4 Effects on Phytoplankton Composition ......................... 488 19.4 Effects of Circulation on Trophic Indicators ........................ 490 19.5 Undesirable Effects ................................................. 494 19.6 Costs ............................................................... 494 19.7 Summary and Recommendations ......................................... 496 References ............................................................... 496 Chapter 20 Sediment Removal .............................................. 503 20.1 Introduction ........................................................ 503 20.2 Objectives of Sediment Removal ...................................... 503 20.2.1 Deepening .................................................... 503 20.2.2 Nutrient Control ............................................. 503 20.2.3 Toxic Substances Removal ..................................... 504 20.2.4 Rooted Macrophyte Control .................................... 504 20.3 Environmental Concerns .............................................. 505 20.3.1 In-Lake Concerns ............................................. 505 20.3.2 Disposal Area Concerns ....................................... 506 20.4 Sediment Removal Depth .............................................. 507 20.5 Sediment Removal Techniques ......................................... 508 20.5.1 Mechanical Dredges ........................................... 509 20.5.2 Hydraulic Dredges ............................................ 509 20.5.3 Special-Purpose Dredges ...................................... 513 20.5.4 Pneumatic Dredges ............................................ 514 20.6 Suitable Lake Conditions ............................................ 514 20.7 Dredge Selection and Disposal Area Design ........................... 516 20.7.1 Dredge Selection ............................................. 517 20.7.1.1 Plan to Optimize the Available Disposal Area ........ 517 20.7.1.2 Analyze the Production Capacity of Available Dredging Equipment .................................. 518 20.7.1.3 Compute Dredging Days Required to Complete the Job ............................................. 520 20.7.1.4 Determine the Required Head Discharge Characteristics of the Main Pump When Pumping Material with the Specific Gravity of Lake Sediment (Approximately 1.20) ....................... 520 20.7.1.5 Determine Minimum Head Conditions When Pumping to the Nearest Disposal Area ................ 528 20.7.1.6 Analyze Booster Pump Requirements for Pumping to Distances Beyond the Capacity of the Main Pump ................................................ 529 20.7.2 Disposal Area Design ......................................... 535 20.7.2.1 Flocculent Settling Procedure ....................... 535 20.7.2.2 Zone/Compression Settling Test Procedure ............ 536 20.7.2.3 Design Procedures ................................... 537 20.8 Case Studies ........................................................ 543 20.8.1 Lake Trainmen, Sweden ........................................ 544 20.8.2 Lilly Lake, Wisconsin ........................................ 548 20.8.2.1 Initial Diagnosis and Results ....................... 548 20.8.2.2 Long-Term Effects ................................... 550 20.8.2.3 Other WDNR Dredging Experiences ..................... 553 20.8.3 Lake Springfield, Illinois ................................... 554 20.8.3.1 Sediment Removal Guidelines ......................... 555 20.8.3.2 Sediment Removal Techniques and Disposal Site Selection ........................................... 556 20.8.3.3 Permits ............................................. 557 20.8.3.4 Disposal Site ....................................... 558 20.8.3.5 Sediment Removal .................................... 558 20.8.4 Lake Jarnsjon, Sweden ........................................ 559 20.9 Costs ............................................................... 562 20.10 Summary ............................................................ 567 References ............................................................... 567 Index .................................................................... 575