Volume 1: Principles Projected Contents, Volume 2: Applications ......................... ix Preface ............................................................ xi Acknowledgments .................................................... xv 1 Introduction ..................................................... 1 1.1 Organization of text ........................................ 1 1.2 Long-Term Global Energy Issues .............................. 2 1.3 Social Role of Industrial Plasma Engineering ............... 16 1.4 Important Definitions ...................................... 17 1.5 Historical Development of Plasma Physics and Engineering ... 19 1.6 Plasma Physics Regimes and Issues .......................... 25 1.7 Professional Interactions in Plasma Science ................ 29 References ................................................. 32 2 Kinetic Theory of Gases ......................................... 34 2.1 Measurement of High Vacuum ................................. 34 2.2 Particle Distribution Functions ............................ 36 2.3 Particle Collisions ........................................ 40 2.4 Kinetic Characteristics in the Hard-Sphere Model ........... 44 2.5 Direct Transport Phenomena ................................. 49 References ................................................. 53 3 Motion of Charges in Electric and Magnetic Fields ............... 54 3.1 Charged Particle Motion in Electric Fields ................. 54 3.2 Charged Particle Motion in Magnetic Fields ................. 59 3.3 Charged Particle Motion in Steady Electric and Magnetic Fields ............................................ 64 3.4 Charged Particle Motion in Slowly Varying Electric or Magnetic Fields ............................................ 71 3.5 Relativistic Charged Particle Motion ....................... 90 3.6 Theory of Planar Diodes .................................... 98 3.7 Relativistic Planar Diode ................................. 106 3.8 Theory of Cylindrical Diodes .............................. 110 References ................................................ 116 4 Characteristics of Plasma ...................................... 117 4.1 Bulk Properties of Plasma ................................. 117 4.2 Quasi-neutrality of Plasma ................................ 125 4.3 Electrostatic Boltzmann (Barometric) Equation ............. 127 4.4 Simple Electrostatic Plasma Sheaths ....................... 129 4.5 Plasma Frequency .......................................... 131 4.6 Saha Equation ............................................. 135 4.7 Diffusive Transport in Plasmas ............................ 136 4.8 Electron Collision Frequency .............................. 144 4.9 Low Pressure Electrical Discharge ......................... 148 4.10 Plasma Power Supplies ..................................... 151 References ................................................ 158 5 Electron Sources and Beams ..................................... 159 5.1 Thermionic Emission Sources ............................... 159 5.2 Photoelectric Emission Sources ............................ 162 5.3 Field Emission Sources .................................... 164 5.4 Hollow Cathode Sources .................................... 167 5.5 Secondary Electron Emission Sources ....................... 170 5.6 Source and Beam Characteristics ........................... 171 5.7 Charged Particle Beam Transport ........................... 174 References ................................................ 187 6 Ion Sources and Beams .......................................... 189 6.1 Characteristics of Ion Sources ............................ 189 6.2 Figures of Merit of Ion Sources ........................... 191 6.3 Ion Source Performance Parameters ......................... 194 6.4 Ion Source Design ......................................... 195 6.5 Kaufman Ion Source ........................................ 200 6.6 Penning Discharge Sources ................................. 204 6.7 Beam-Plasma Ion Sources ................................... 208 6.8 Von Ardenne Ion Sources ................................... 210 6.9 Freeman Ion Source ........................................ 214 6.10 Miscellaneous Ion Sources ................................. 215 6.11 Surface Ionization Sources ................................ 218 References ................................................ 221 7 Ionizing Radiation Sources ..................................... 223 7.1 Non-Relativistic Cyclotron ................................ 223 7.2 Relativistic Cyclotron .................................... 225 7.3 The Betatron .............................................. 227 7.4 The Synchrotron ........................................... 229 7.5 Inductive Spherical Pinch ................................. 231 7.6 Resistive Spherical Pinch ................................. 233 7.7 Plasma Focus .............................................. 236 References ................................................ 236 8 Dark Electrical Discharges in Gases ............................ 237 8.1 Background Ionization ..................................... 237 8.2 Saturation Regime ......................................... 238 8.3 Townsend Discharge ........................................ 240 8.4 Corona Discharges ......................................... 251 8.5 Corona Sources ............................................ 256 8.6 Electrical Breakdown ...................................... 275 References ................................................ 282 9 DC Electrical Glow Discharges in Gases ......................... 283 9.1 Phenomenology of DC Glow Discharges ....................... 284 9.2 Theory of DC Glow Discharges .............................. 292 9.3 Theory of Moving Striations ............................... 308 9.4 Theory of DC Plasma Sheaths ............................... 319 9.5 DC Glow Discharge Plasma Sources .......................... 330 9.6 Characteristics of Glow Discharge Reactors ................ 340 9.7 Issues in Glow Discharge Physics .......................... 348 References ................................................ 350 10 DC Electrical Arc Discharges in Gases .......................... 352 10.1 Arc Regime ................................................ 352 10.2 Phenomenology of Electrical Arcs .......................... 356 10.3 Physical Processes in Electrical Arcs ..................... 360 10.4 Examples of Arc Operation ................................. 371 10.5 Power Supplies for Electrical Arcs ........................ 376 10.6 Initiating Mechanisms for Arcs ............................ 378 10.7 Applied Arc Configurations ................................ 379 10.8 Issues in Arc Physics ..................................... 389 References ................................................ 390 11 Inductive RF Electrical Discharges in Gases .................... 391 11.1 Introduction .............................................. 391 11.2 Phenomenology of RF-Plasma Interactions ................... 393 11.3 Skin Depth of Plasma ...................................... 398 11.4 Inductive Plasma Torch .................................... 404 11.5 Other Methods of Generating Inductive Plasmas ............. 411 References ................................................ 416 12 Capacitive RF Electrical Discharges in Gases ................... 417 12.1 Unmagnetized RF Electrical Discharges ..................... 417 12.2 Magnetized RF Electrical Discharges ....................... 422 12.3 Theory of RF Plasma Sheaths ............................... 435 12.4 Capacitively Coupled RF Plasma Sources .................... 440 12.5 Examples of Capacitive RF Plasma Reactors ................. 450 12.6 Issues in Capacitively Coupled Plasma Sources ............. 461 12.7 Applications of Capacitively Coupled Reactors ............. 462 References ................................................ 462 13 Microwave Electrical Discharges in Gases ....................... 464 13.1 Introduction .............................................. 464 13.2 Electromagnetic Propagation in the Collective Regime ...... 470 13.3 Microwave Breakdown of Gases .............................. 481 13.4 ECR Microwave Plasma Sources .............................. 501 13.5 Non-resonant Microwave Plasma Sources ..................... 508 References ................................................ 514 Appendices ........................................................ 516 A Nomenclature .................................................... 516 B Physical Constants .............................................. 523 C Units and Conversion Factors .................................... 524 D Useful Formulas ................................................. 526 Index ............................................................. 528 About the Author .................................................. 537