1 Introduction ......................................................... 1 References .......................................................... 12 2 Nanotechnology ...................................................... 13 Nanoscience / Nanotechnology ........................................ 13 Nanofabrication / Nanoassembly ...................................... 19 Atomic Bit Processing ............................................ 19 Nanomaterials .................................................... 21 Synthesis: Metals / Intermetallics ............................... 26 Sol-Gel Methods .................................................. 27 Compaction ....................................................... 28 Silicon-Based Nanostructures ..................................... 29 Hybrid Semiconductors — Molecular Nanoelectronics ................ 31 Hybrid Circuits ..................................................... 31 Nanophase Materials ................................................. 33 Producing Nanophase Particles .................................... 33 Grain Boundaries / Size .......................................... 35 Nanostructured Oxides ............................................... 35 Nanostructured Nitrides and Carbonitrides ........................... 37 Nanocomposites ...................................................... 37 Background ....................................................... 37 Some Typical Material Types and Processing Methods ............... 39 Modeling ......................................................... 46 Polymer Nanocomposites .............................................. 47 Properties of PNCs ............................................... 50 Some Applications of Nanotechnology ................................. 51 Films/Coatings ................................................... 51 Nanoelectronics .................................................. 55 New Bone Materials ............................................... 57 Shoes ............................................................ 57 Biosensors / Computational Optoelectronics ....................... 58 Molecular Electronics ............................................ 58 Inorganic Nanowires .............................................. 58 Lubricants ....................................................... 58 Polyesters ....................................................... 59 Cellulose Materials .............................................. 60 Automotive ....................................................... 60 Protection of Food Supply ........................................ 61 Optics ........................................................... 61 Building Blocks (Carbon Tubules) ................................. 61 Motors ........................................................... 62 Switches ......................................................... 63 Rules and Measuring Devices ...................................... 63 Piezoceramics .................................................... 64 Clothing ......................................................... 65 Clusters ......................................................... 66 Cosmetics ........................................................ 66 Nanowire Arrays .................................................. 66 Nanobatteries .................................................... 67 Future and Potential ................................................ 68 Challenges ....................................................... 68 Self-Assembly .................................................... 69 Next Decade ...................................................... 70 References .......................................................... 71 Bibliography ........................................................ 75 3 Carbon-Carbon Composites ............................................ 77 Introduction ........................................................ 77 Graphite and Carbon-Carbon Composites ............................... 78 Carbon Fiber and Matrix Materials ................................... 82 Carbon Fibers .................................................... 82 Matrix Materials ................................................. 87 Thermosetting Resins ............................................. 88 Tar Pitch Resins ................................................. 88 Carbon Fiber Structure .............................................. 89 Rayon-Based Carbon Fibers ........................................ 90 Pan-Based Carbon Fibers .......................................... 93 Pitch-Derived Carbon Fibers ...................................... 94 Fiber Structure and Architecture ................................. 96 Weaving .......................................................... 97 Multidirectional Preforms ........................................ 99 Braiding ........................................................ 101 Matrix Precursors .................................................. 104 C/C Significant Properties ......................................... 113 Mechanical Properties ........................................... 113 High-Temperature Mechanical Properties .......................... 116 Fatigue Properties .............................................. 116 Fracture Toughness .............................................. 117 Thermal Properties .............................................. 118 Thermal Conductivity at High Temperatures .................... 120 Thermal Expansion ............................................ 120 Processing Effects on Mechanical Properties ..................... 120 Oxidation Protection ............................................... 122 Low-Temperature Protection (Up to 1000°C) ....................... 124 Protection up to 1800°C ......................................... 125 Chemical Vapor Deposition .................................... 126 Chemical Vapor Infiltration .................................. 127 Chemical Vapor Reaction ...................................... 127 Protection Beyond 1800°C ........................................... 128 NDE of Coatings .................................................... 131 Fabrication Processes / Techniques ................................. 132 Mechanical Fastening ............................................ 133 Bushings ..................................................... 133 Tolerances ................................................... 133 Locking Fasteners ............................................ 134 Brazing ......................................................... 134 High-Energy Electron Beam (HEEB) ................................ 139 Applications ....................................................... 141 Brakes and Clutches ............................................. 142 Pistons ......................................................... 150 Rocket Motors ................................................... 152 Heat Shields (Thermal Protection Systems) ....................... 154 Aero-Engine Components .......................................... 155 Biomedical Devices .............................................. 156 Industrial and Miscellaneous Applications .......................... 157 Reflective Panels ............................................... 157 Ion-Accelerator Grids ........................................... 158 Glass Making .................................................... 160 High-Temperature Mechanical Fasteners ........................... 160 Molds for Forming Superplastic Metals ........................... 161 Hot-Press Dies .................................................. 161 Hot Gas Ducts ................................................... 162 Furnace Heating Elements and Charging Stages .................... 162 Summary ............................................................ 165 References ......................................................... 166 Bibliography ....................................................... 171 4 Shape Memory Alloys / Effect ....................................... 175 Introduction ....................................................... 175 One-Way Shape Memory Effect ........................................ 176 Two-Way Shape Memory Effect ........................................ 178 How It Works .................................................... 179 Superelastic Effect .......................................... 180 SMA Systems ........................................................ 180 Fe-based Alloys ................................................. 182 Cu-based Alloys ................................................. 184 Transformation Temperatures / Quenching ...................... 185 The Influence of the Composition ............................. 185 Influence of Grain-Refining Elements Forming Precipitates..... 188 Influence of Grain Size ...................................... 188 Influence of Defects ......................................... 188 Ni-Ti Alloys .................................................... 190 Influence of Strain Rate on Deformation ...................... 192 Ternary Ni-Ti Alloy Systems ..................................... 192 Ni-Ti-Cu ..................................................... 192 Ti-Ni-Nb ..................................................... 193 Ni-Ti-Zr ..................................................... 193 Ni-Ti-Pd ..................................................... 194 Ni-Ti-Hf ..................................................... 194 High-Temperature SMAs ........................................ 196 Composite Materials ............................................. 197 Ni-Ti-Al ..................................................... 197 Ni-Ti-TiC .................................................... 197 Other Types of SMAs ............................................. 197 Fe-Mn-Si-Cr-Ni Alloys ........................................ 198 Hybrid Composites ............................................... 198 SMA Fiber / Metal Matrix Composites (MMCs) ................... 198 SMA Fiber / Polymer Matrix Composites ........................ 199 SMA Particulate / Al Matrix Composites ....................... 201 Ceramic Particulate / SMA Matrix Composites .................. 202 Magnetic Particulate / SMA Matrix Composites ................. 203 Material Forms ..................................................... 204 Design Constraints and Considerations .............................. 205 General Guidelines .............................................. 205 Material Processing Techniques ..................................... 207 Cu-Al-Ni-based SMA .............................................. 207 Fabrication Techniques ............................................. 208 Joining ......................................................... 208 Fundamental Difference ....................................... 208 Fusion Welding of SMAs .......................................... 209 Solid-State Welding of SMAs ..................................... 210 Alternative Processes for Joining ............................... 211 Transient Liquid Phase Bonding ............................... 212 Work To Be Done .............................................. 212 Superplastic Forming ............................................ 213 Forming ......................................................... 213 Machining ....................................................... 214 Design for Assembly ............................................. 214 Micromachining and Fabrication of SMA Microdevices ........... 214 Laser Machining ................................................. 217 SMA Applications ................................................... 217 Aeronautics / Aerospace ......................................... 217 Leading-Edge Deicing ......................................... 220 Helicopter Smart Materials ................................... 222 Consumer Products ............................................... 222 Commercial / Industrial Safety .................................. 225 Medical ......................................................... 226 Automotive ...................................................... 233 Industrial / Civil Engineering .................................. 234 Reinforcing or Decommissioning Structures .................... 235 Power Generation System ......................................... 236 Miscellaneous ................................................... 239 Springs for Isolation Devices ................................ 241 Electronics ..................................................... 241 Microactuators ............................................... 243 Ni-Ti Thin Films ............................................. 243 Microrobotics and Microdevices ............................... 245 Specialized Actuator Applications ............................ 248 Future Trends and Prospects ........................................ 255 Final Remarks on Future Prospects ............................... 256 SMPs ............................................................ 258 SMP Advantages ............................................... 258 References ......................................................... 259 Bibliography ....................................................... 270 5 Nanostructured Materials (NSM) ..................................... 273 Structure and Properties of NSM .................................... 276 Nanocrystals and Nanocrystalline Materials ......................... 277 Nanocrystals .................................................... 277 Nanocrystalline Materials ....................................... 281 Nanocrystalline Processing ......................................... 286 Sintering ....................................................... 287 CVS ............................................................. 288 Nanocomposites ..................................................... 290 Ceramics ........................................................ 290 Sintering ....................................................... 292 Other Processes ................................................. 295 Solid-State Thermolysis of Polymer Precursors ................ 295 Powder-Making ................................................... 295 Explosive Energy ............................................. 296 Polymer / Clay ............................................... 297 Polymer / Silica ............................................. 301 Laminated .................................................... 302 Extrusions ................................................... 303 Nanomanufacturing .................................................. 304 Nanocomposite Applications and Directions .......................... 306 Automotive ...................................................... 306 Coatings ........................................................ 307 Gas Phase Condensation (GPC) .................................... 309 MEMS ............................................................ 310 Medical ......................................................... 310 Textile / Clothing .............................................. 310 Micro Springs ................................................... 311 Computers ....................................................... 313 Miscellaneous ................................................... 314 Nanoparticles ...................................................... 314 Nanopowders ........................................................ 324 Approaches to Powder Fabrication ................................ 324 CVD .......................................................... 324 Laser Synthesis .............................................. 324 Microwave Energy Transfer .................................... 326 Mechanical Alloying (MA) ..................................... 329 Severe Plastic Deformation ................................... 329 High-Energy Ball Milling ..................................... 330 Densification and Treatment ..................................... 331 Applications .................................................... 332 Nanowires .......................................................... 335 Nanobelts .......................................................... 335 Nanofilms .......................................................... 336 Nanocircuits ....................................................... 336 Nanowhiskers ....................................................... 337 Nanocapsules ....................................................... 341 Nanospheres ........................................................ 342 Nanofibers ......................................................... 343 Nanoceramics / Shells .............................................. 343 Nanoantennas ....................................................... 344 Nanoelectronics .................................................... 345 Hybrid Circuits ................................................. 346 Neuromorphic Networks ........................................... 347 Self-Evolution .................................................. 348 References ......................................................... 349 Bibliography ....................................................... 353 6 Powder Metallurgy (P/M) ............................................ 357 Introduction ....................................................... 357 Definition ...................................................... 357 Materials .......................................................... 358 Titanium Alloys ................................................. 358 Intermetallics .................................................. 359 Composites ...................................................... 360 Copper-Iron-Cobalt Alloys ....................................... 362 Rhenium ......................................................... 362 Cermets ......................................................... 364 Cemented Carbides ............................................... 365 Tungsten-Based Heavy Alloys...................................... 365 Processes for Powder Production .................................... 366 Status of MA ....................................................... 366 Solid Solubility Processing ..................................... 367 Plasma Processing (PP) .......................................... 368 Physical Vapor Deposition (PVD) ................................. 368 Novel Plasma Process ............................................ 369 Plasma Melting .................................................. 369 Plasma Discharge Spheroidization (PDS) .......................... 371 Spray Compaction ................................................... 372 Other Innovative Advanced P/M Processes ............................ 372 Warm Compaction ................................................. 372 Cold Forming .................................................... 373 Dynamic Magnetic Compaction ..................................... 374 Laser Manufacturing / Processing ................................ 374 Processes for Part Fabrication ..................................... 375 Specialty Production Processes: Powder-Injection Molding ........... 376 What Is PIM? .................................................... 376 Design and Material Considerations .............................. 378 Materials and Trends ............................................ 379 Another Specialty Production Process: Metal Injection Molding (MIM) ..................................................... 380 Material Basics ................................................. 381 Debind and Sinter ............................................... 382 MIM vs. Other Processes ......................................... 383 Typical Applications ............................................... 385 References ......................................................... 388 Bibliography ....................................................... 390 7 Nanotubes .......................................................... 393 Introduction ....................................................... 393 Definition and Structure ........................................ 393 Growth and Fabrication ............................................. 395 Properties ......................................................... 401 Mechanical Properties ........................................... 402 Composite-Reinforced Properties ................................. 402 Electrical Properties ........................................... 405 Thermal Properties .............................................. 406 Other Properties ................................................ 406 Dialing-Up Properties .............................................. 407 Other Nanotube Materials ........................................... 409 Welding Nanotubes .................................................. 412 Applications ....................................................... 413 DNA ............................................................. 413 Military and Space .............................................. 414 Composites ...................................................... 415 Medical ......................................................... 416 Commercial Products and Fiber Optics ............................ 417 Electronics ..................................................... 420 Future Potential ................................................... 424 References ......................................................... 426 Bibliography ....................................................... 428 8 Functionally Gradient Materials .................................... 431 Introduction ....................................................... 431 Definition and Design of FGMs ...................................... 431 Definition ...................................................... 431 Design .......................................................... 432 Material Combinations .............................................. 437 Fabrication / Processing Methods ................................... 443 Joining FGMs .................................................... 460 Properties ......................................................... 461 Applications ....................................................... 462 Dental Implant .................................................. 462 Building Materials .............................................. 463 Ballistic Protection ............................................ 463 Temperature Sensors ............................................. 464 References ......................................................... 466 Bibliography ....................................................... 470 9 Microelectromechanical Systems ..................................... 473 Introduction ....................................................... 473 What Are MEMS? ..................................................... 474 MEMS Design ........................................................ 475 Types of MEMS ...................................................... 476 Fabrication ........................................................ 478 UV Lasers ....................................................... 478 Photo Ablation ............................................... 480 Protective Film Technique .................................... 480 What Is Left? ................................................ 482 Debris Removal Methods ....................................... 482 Plasma-Enhanced Chemical Vapor Deposition ....................... 483 Wafer-Level Membrane Transfer Process ........................... 486 Micromachines ................................................... 486 Manufacturing MEMS ................................................. 487 Applications ....................................................... 488 Future Potential ................................................... 496 Packaging Advancements .......................................... 497 MEMS Component Challenges .................................... 497 Assembly Automation Design Considerations .................... 498 Future Work ..................................................... 499 References ......................................................... 500 Bibliography ....................................................... 501 10 Fuel Cells ......................................................... 503 Introduction ....................................................... 503 What Is a Fuel Cell? ............................................... 504 Major Types and Operations ......................................... 505 Proton Exchange Membrane ........................................ 506 Solid Oxide Fuel Cell ........................................... 509 Basic Science Behind SOFCs ................................... 509 Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell (MCFC) ............................... 519 Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell (PAFC) ................................ 519 Other Fuel Cells ................................................ 520 Applications in Transportation ..................................... 522 Automotive ...................................................... 523 Motorcycles, Scooters, and Water Taxis .......................... 524 Locomotives, Submarines, Ferries, and Yachts .................... 524 Trucks and Buses ................................................ 525 Auxiliary Power Units ........................................... 526 Applications in Commercial Sector .................................. 526 Cell Phones / Computers ......................................... 526 DC Rotary Motors ................................................ 530 Office Buildings / Residential Homes / Hotels ................... 531 Communications Equipment ........................................ 532 Forklifts ....................................................... 532 Power Plant ..................................................... 532 Medical Implants ................................................ 533 Power Supply Equipment .......................................... 533 Life-Cycle Cost Savings ......................................... 534 Musical Band .................................................... 534 Sailboats / Powerboats .......................................... 534 Future ............................................................. 534 References ......................................................... 542 Bibliography ....................................................... 544 11 Liquid Crystal Polymers / Interpenetrating Network for Polymers / Interpenetrating Phase Ceramics ......................... 545 Liquid Crystal Polymers (LCP) ...................................... 545 Introduction .................................................... 545 Types (Classes) and Properties .................................. 546 Polymer Classes .............................................. 546 Classes ...................................................... 547 Forms ........................................................ 550 Properties Especially Affecting Design .......................... 553 Properties and How They Affect Molding .......................... 556 Other Properties ................................................ 556 Processing ...................................................... 557 Applications .................................................... 559 Interpenetrating Network (IPN) ..................................... 562 Introduction .................................................... 562 Types ........................................................... 562 Processes ....................................................... 563 Applications .................................................... 564 Interpenetrating Phase Ceramics (IPCs) ............................. 565 References ......................................................... 565 Bibliography ....................................................... 566 12 Processes and Fabrication .......................................... 569 Introduction ....................................................... 569 Composite Processes ................................................ 569 Dry Process for PI/C and B: Fiber Tape .......................... 569 Metal Matrix Composites (MMC) ................................... 571 RTM / CoRTM / VARTM / RARTM ..................................... 575 Infusion Processes: Resin Film Infusion (RFI) / DIAB Method ..... 580 Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMC) .................................... 584 Metal Matrix Composites ............................................ 586 Advanced Fibers / Whiskers / Particulates .......................... 588 Siboramic Fibers ................................................ 588 TiB Whiskers .................................................... 588 Biocomposites ...................................................... 590 Crystaloy™ or CxA ............................................... 591 Laser Processes .................................................... 591 Laser Engineered Net Shaping (LENS) ............................. 593 Process Basics ............................................... 594 Process Pluses ............................................... 596 LENS as a Tool ............................................... 596 Peening ......................................................... 598 Square Beam .................................................. 599 Welding ......................................................... 600 Surface Treatment ............................................... 602 Glazing and Cladding ............................................ 605 Coatings ............................................................ 606 Trends .......................................................... 607 High-Temperature Coatings Design ............................. 607 High-Temperature Coating Types ............................... 607 Processes for Applying Coatings ................................. 608 Degradation Modes ............................................ 608 Engineering Considerations ................................... 609 Life-Cycle Factors ........................................... 610 Chemical Vapor Deposition .................................... 611 Ion Beam Enhanced Deposition (IBED) .......................... 613 Plasma Vapor Deposition ...................................... 615 Vapor Plasma Spraying (VPS) .................................. 618 Thermal Spray Processes ............................................ 620 Metal Spray Processes .............................................. 624 Friction Stir Processes (FSP) ...................................... 624 Friction Stir Processing for Superplasticity .................... 624 Friction Stir Welding (FSW) ..................................... 627 Magnetic Pulse Welding (MPW) ....................................... 628 Ceramic Welding .................................................... 630 Ceramic Joining .................................................... 631 Adhesives .......................................................... 633 Wire Bonding ....................................................... 636 Nitrocarburizing ................................................... 637 Process ......................................................... 637 Vacuum Carburizing ................................................. 639 Electrospinning .................................................... 641 Process ......................................................... 641 Applications .................................................... 641 Spinning Spider Silk ............................................... 643 Press Forming Thermoplastics ....................................... 644 Ion Implantation ................................................... 646 Gelcasting ......................................................... 648 Applications .................................................... 652 Robocasting ........................................................ 653 Rapid Prototyping .................................................. 654 Plasma-Assisted Boriding ........................................... 656 Net-Shape P/M ...................................................... 658 Rheocasting Processes .............................................. 660 Semisolid Casting ............................................... 660 Investment Casting ................................................. 663 Single Crystals ................................................. 663 Single Crystal Ceramics ......................................... 664 Applications ................................................. 666 Other Applications and the Market ............................ 668 Microwave Processing ............................................... 668 Drilling ........................................................ 668 Casting and Sintering ........................................... 669 Flowforming ........................................................ 670 X-Ray Inspection ................................................... 670 Microfocus X-Ray Inspection Systems ............................. 671 Nanofocus X-Ray Inspection ...................................... 672 Future of X-Ray Inspection ...................................... 672 References ...................................................... 673 Bibliography .................................................... 678 Index .............................................................. 681