Forewords ..................................................... xii
Chapter 1. BEER, BREAD, AND CHEESE - THE TASTY SIDE OF
BIOTECHNOLOGY ................................................... 1
1.1 In the Beginning, There Were Beer and Wine -
Nurturing Civilization ..................................... 2
1.2 Yeasts - The Secret . Behind Alcoholic Fermentation ........ 2
1.3 Now as Ever, Beer Is Brewed from Yeast, Water, Malt, and
Hops ....................................................... 5
1.4 Cells Run on Solar Energy ................................. 11
1.5 For Yeast, Alcohol Has Nothing to Do With Enjoyment, but
All With Survival ......................................... 11
1.6 Highly Concentrated Alcohol Is Obtained by Distillation ... 13
1.7 Bacterially Produced Acidic Preservatives ................. 15
1.8 Coffee, Cocoa, Vanilla, Tobacco - Fermentation for
Enhanced Pleasure ......................................... 17
1.9 An Alliance of Molds and Bacteria in Cheese Production .... 20
1.10 Sake and Soy Sauce ........................................ 26
1.11 What Exactly Is Fermentation? ............................. 26
Chapter 2. ENZYMES - Molecular Supercatalysts for Use at
Home and in Industry ........................................... 29
2.1 Enzymes Are High-performing and Highly Specific
Biocatalysts .............................................. 30
2.2 Lysozyme - The First Enzyme to Be Understood in
Structure and Function Down to Minute Molecular Detail .... 30
2.3 The Role of Cofactors in Complex Enzymes .................. 35
2.4 Animals, Plants, and Microorganisms as Enzyme Sources ..... 35
2.5 Extracellular Hydrolases Degrade Biopolymers into
Smaller Manageable Units .................................. 38
2.6 Amylases Are Used for Brewing, Baking, and Desizing ....... 38
2.7 Pectinases Increase Fruit and Vegetable Juice Production .. 40
2.8 Biological Detergents - The Most Important Application
Area of Hydrolytic Enzyme ................................. 40
2.9 Proteases Tenderize Meat and Tan Leather .................. 41
2.10 Immobilization - Reusing Enzymes .......................... 42
2.11 Glucose Isomerase and Fructose Syrup - Boosting the
Sweetness of Sugar ........................................ 44
2.12 Immobilized Enzymes in Human and Animal Food Production ... 45
2.13 Making Use of Cofactor Regeneration - Enzyme Membrane
Reactors .................................................. 49
2.14 Immobilized Cells ......................................... 50
Chapter 3. The Wonders of Gene Technology ...................... 57
3.1 DNA - The Double Helix as a Physical Carrier of Genetic
Material .................................................. 58
3.2 DNA Polymerases Catalyze the Replication of the DNA
Double Strand ............................................. 58
3.3 Not All Genes Are Encrypted in DNA. RNA Viruses Use
Single-Stranded RNA ....................................... 59
3.4 Deciphering the Genetic Code .............................. 59
3.5 The Human Genome - A Giant 23-Volume Encyclopedia ......... 60
3.6 The DNA Code Deciphered - Artificial RNA Decodes the
Codons .................................................... 61
3.7 DNA Sites Around the Structural Genes Control the
Expression of Genes ....................................... 65
3.8 Ribosomes - The Protein Production Plant Inside the
Cell ...................................................... 66
3.9 Recombination - A Genetic Reshuffling of Cards ............ 71
3.10 Plasmids - Ideal Vectors for Genetic Material ............. 73
3.11 Scissors and Glue at a Molecular Level - Restriction
Endonucleases and DNA Ligases ............................. 73
3.12 First Experiments in Gene Technology- Croaking Bacteria? .. 74
3.13 How to Obtain Genes ....................................... 77
3.14 Human Insulin from Bacteria? .............................. 75
3.15 Insulin Synthesis in Humans ............................... 80
3.16 Rat Proinsulin - The Beginnings of Genetic Engineering .... 81
3.17 DNA-Hybridization - How to Find Bacteria Using DNA
Probes .................................................... 82
3.18 A Slight Diversion - Somatostatin - The First Human
Protein Obtained from Bacteria ............................ 83
3.19 How Enzymes Turn Porcine Insulin into Human Insulin ....... 83
3.20 Eureka! The First Genetically Engineered Insulin Has
Been Produced ............................................. 85
3.21 Asilomar - How Dangerous Is Modern Gene Technology? ....... 85
3.22 Human Proin-sulin Obtained from a Single E. coli Strain ... 86
3.23 Bakers' Yeast for Proinsulin Production ................... 87
3.24 Artificial Insulin Variants (Muteins) Obtained by
Protein Engineering ....................................... 88
3.25 Genetically Modified Mammalian Cells for the Production
of Modified Complex Proteins .............................. 90
Chapter 4. white biotechnology - Cells As Synthetic Factories .. 83
4.1 An Overview 96-4.2 Tactical Adaptation .................... 97
4.3 Strategic Adaptation: Enzyme Production on Demand ......... 99
4.4 An Allosteric Molecular Computer - Glutamine Synthetase .. 101
4.5 Catabolite Repression or Fishing for Polymerase .......... 104
4.6 Mold Replacing Lemons .................................... 104
4.7 Overproduction of Lysine - How Mutants Outwit the
Feedback Inhibition of Aspartate Kinase .................. 105
4.8 L-Glutamate -"Levorotatory" Soup Seasoning in Abundance .. 107
4.9 Chemical Synthesis Versus Microbial Production ........... 105
4.10 L-Ascorbic Acid (Vitamin С) .............................. 109
4.11 Aspartame - Sweet Success of a Dipeptide Ester ........... 114
4.12 Immobilized Cells Producing Amino Acids and Organic
Acids .................................................... 117
4.13 Mutations as a Way of Targeting Microbial Programming .... 117
4.14 Penicillium notatum - Alexander Fleming's Miraculous
Fungus ................................................... 106
4.15 Screening - Biotechnologists In Search of Molds .......... 119
4.16 What's On The Microbial Menu? ............................ 122
4.17 A Modem Biofactory ....................................... 122
4.18 Heat, Cold and Dry Conditions Keep Microbes at Bay ....... 125
4.19 Downstream Processing .................................... 126
4.20 Streptomycin and Cephalosporins - The Next Generation
of Antibiotics ........................................... 126
4.21 The Race Against Microbial Resistance .................... 131
4.22 Cyclosporin - A Microbial Product Used in Transplants .... 131
4.23 Steroid Hormones - Cortisone and the Contraceptive Pill .. 135
Chapter 5. Viruses, Antibodies, and Vaccines .................. 123
5.1 Viruses - Borrowed Life .................................. 140
5.2 How Viruses Attack Cells ................................. 140
5.3 How the Body Defends Itself Against Infections -
Humoral Immune Response Through Antibodies ............... 143
5.4 Cellular Immune Response: Killer T-Cells ................. 147
5.5 The First Vaccination: Cowpox against Smallpox ........... 152
5.6 Contemporary Vaccination ................................. 153
5.7 Live Vaccines ............................................ 157
5.8 Monoclonal Antibodies .................................... 157
5.9 Catalytic Antibodies ..................................... 159
5.10 Recombinant Antibodies ................................... 159
5.11 Recombinant Antibody Libraries ........................... 163
5.12 Piggyback or Phage Display - The Next Revolution ......... 164
5.13 Phage Display for High Affinity Growth Hormone ........... 165
5.14 New Hope for Cancer Patients - Retuximab, a Recombinant
Antibody ................................................. 165
Chapter 6. Environmental Biotechnology From One-way streets
to Traffic Circles ............................................ 149
6.1 Clean Water - A Bioproduct ............................... 170
6.2 Aerobic Water Purification - Sewage Farms, Trickling
Filters, and Activated Sludge ............................ 172
6.3 Biogas ................................................... 173
6.4 Biogas Could Save Forests ................................ 176
6.5 Biogas in Industrial Countries - Using Liquid Manure ..... 177
6.6 Fuel Growing in the Fields 178-6.7 Ananda Chakrabarty's
Oil-Guzzlers ............................................. 179
6.8 Sugar and Alcohol from Wood .............................. 180
6.9 Basic Chemicals from Bio-mass? ........................... 185
6.10 Silent Mining ............................................ 190
6.11 A New Life for Tired Oil Wells? .......................... 190
6.12 Bioplastic - From Dead End to Merry-Go-Round ............. 191
Chapter 7. Green Biotechnology ................................ 171
7.1 Microbes Are Edible ...................................... 198
7.2 Algae and Cyanobacteria .................................. 198
7.3 Single Cell-Protein: the Hope for Cheap Sources of
Protein .................................................. 200
7.4 Mycoprotein is a Success with Consumers as a Vegetable
Protein .................................................. 201
7.5 "Green" Biotechnology at the Doorstep .................... 204
7.6 Fields in a Test Tube: in vitro Plant Breeding ........... 204
7.7 Meristem Culture ......................................... 205
7.8 Haploid Cultures: Anthers and Ovaries .................... 209
7.9 Callus and Suspension Cultures ........................... 211
7.10 Plant Cells in the Bioreactor Produce Active Substances .. 211
7.11 Which Active Substances from Plants Will Follow
Shikonin? ................................................ 212
7.12 Agrobacterium - A Pest as a Genetic Engineer ............. 213
7.13 Biolistic Gene Transfer: DNA Shot from a Gun ............. 216
7.14 Transgenic Plants: Herbicide Resistance .................. 216
7.15 Biological Insecticide ................................... 217
7.16 Blue Carnations and Flavr Savr Tomatoes .................. 221
7.17 Danger from Genetically Modified Food? ................... 222
7.18 Should Genetically Modified Food Be Labeled? ............. 223
7.19 Gene Pharming ............................................ 223
7.20 Transgenic Plants - A Heated Debate ...................... 225
7.21 Tropical Palms ........................................... 226
7.22 Bacteria in Snow Guns Safeguard Skiing Holidays .......... 231
Chapter 8. Embryos, Clones And Transgenic Animals ............. 203
8.1 Artificial Insemination .................................. 236
8.2 Embryo Transfer and In Vitro Fertilization ............... 236
8.3 Animals Threatened with Extinction Could be Saved By
Embryo Transfer .......................................... 237
8.4 Chimeric Animals Have at Least Four Genetic Parents ...... 238
8.5 Transgenic Animals - From Giant Mouse to Giant Cow? ...... 239
8.6 Growth Hormones for Cows and Pigs ........................ 240
8.7 "Gene Pharming" - Valuable Human Proteins in Milk and
Eggs ..................................................... 241
8.8 Transgenic Fish - From GloFish to Giant Trout ............ 243
8.9 Knockout Mice ............................................ 246
8.10 Xenotransplantation ...................................... 247
8.11 Cloning - Mass Production of Twins ....................... 247
8.12 Clones of Frogs and Newts ................................ 250
8.13 Dolly - The Breakthrough in Animal Cloning ............... 251
8.14 Difficulties in the Cloning Process ...................... 254
8.15 Cloning Cats - Parental Variations ....................... 255
8.16 What About Humans? Cloning, IVF, and PID ................. 257
8.17 The Embryo Yielding Its Secret and the Human Genome
Project .................................................. 260
Chapter 9. Myocardial Infarction, Cancer And Stem Cells
biotechnology is a life Saver ................................. 243
9.1 Myocardial Infarction and Anticoagulants ................. 264
9.2 Fibrinolysis Following Myocardial Infarction: Using
Enzymes to Dissolve Thrombi .............................. 264
9.3 Stroke: Help from the Vampire Enzyme ..................... 265
9.4 Genetically Engineered Factor VIII - Safe Help for
Hemophiliacs ............................................. 267
9.5 EPO for Kidney Patients and in Sport ..................... 268
9.6 Interferons for Fighting Viruses and Cancer .............. 268
9.7 Interleukins ............................................. 270
9.8 Cancer: Abnormal Uncontrolled Cell Growth ................ 270
9.9 New Cancer Treatments .................................... 274
9.10 Paclitaxel against Cancer ................................ 275
9.11 Human Growth Hormone ..................................... 278
9.12 Epidermal Growth Hormone - Wrinkles Disappear and
Diabetic Feet Heal ....................................... 278
9.13 Stem Cells, the Ultimate Fountain of Youth? .............. 279
9.14 Gene Therapy ............................................. 285
9.15 The Junk Yields its Treasures: RNAi, RNA Interference .... 285
Chapter 10 Analytical Biotechnology and the Human Genome
10.1 Enzyme Tests for Millions of Diabetics ................... 294
10.2 Biosensors ............................................... 296
10.3 Microbial Sensors - Yeasts Measuring Water Pollution in
Five Minutes ............................................. 297
10.4 Immunological Pregnancy Tests ............................ 297
10.5 AIDS Tests ............................................... 298
10.6 Myocardial Infarction Tests .............................. 298
10.7 Point of Care (РОС) Tests ................................ 299
10.8 How DNA Is Analyzed - Gel Electrophoresis Separates DNA
Fragments According to Size .............................. 300
10.9 Life And Death Genetic Fingerprinting in Establishing
Paternity and Investigating Murders ...................... 300
10.10 DNA Markers Short Tandem Repeats and SNPs ............... 302
10.11 Polymerase Chain Reaction - Copying DNA on a Mega
Scale ................................................... 303
10.12 A New Lease of Life for Dinosaurs and Mammoths .......... 304
10.13 The Sequencing of Genes ................................. 305
10.14 Southern Blotting ....................................... 308
10.15 Automatic DNA Sequencing ................................ 308
10.16 FISH -Identifying the Location on a Chromosome and the
Number of Gene Copies ................................... 309
10.17 The Ultimate Biotechnological Achievement - The Human
Genome Project .......................................... 312
10.18 Genetic Genome Maps ..................................... 313
10.19 Physical Genome Mapping ................................. 315
10.20 Which Method - Contig Versus Shot Gun? .................. 316
10.21 The Human Genome Project - Where Do We Go from Here? .... 317
10.22 And How Can the Sequence of the Genome Be Understood? ... 321
10.23 Pharmacogenomics ........................................ 279
10.24 DNA Chips ............................................... 325
10.25 Identifying the Causes of Disease - Gene Expression
Profiles ................................................ 325
10.26 Proteomics .............................................. 326
10.27 MALDI - A Gas from Protein Ions ......................... 327
10.28 Aptamers and Protein Chips .............................. 327
10.29 Is Total Control Over the Human Genome Possible? ........ 331
10.30 Quo Vadis, Biotech? ..................................... 331
Photo and Citation ............................................ 335
Credits Index ................................................. 338
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