Dedication .................................................... iii
Copyright Acknowledgments ..................................... vii
Preface ....................................................... xix
Acknowledgments ............................................... xxi
List of Figures and Tables .................................. xxiii
1 The Need for an Evolutionary Study of Culture History
in the Pleistocene ......................................... 1
1.1 The Paleoanthropological Issue ............................. 1
1.2 The Behavioral Issue ....................................... 2
1.3 The Methodological Issue ................................... 5
1.4 The Structure of the Book .................................. 7
1.5 Relationship to Previous Work .............................. 8
2 Sampling the Middle to Upper Paleolithic Transition ....... 11
2.1 The Sampling Criteria ..................................... 11
2.2 An Introduction to the Regional Sequences of the MP-UP
Transition ................................................ 12
2.2.1 Western Europe ..................................... 12
2.2.2 Central Europe: The Middle Danube .................. 14
Sampling Central Europe: The Middle Danube Basin ... 17
2.2.3 Eastern Europe ..................................... 17
Sampling Eastern Europe: Western Ukraine ........... 17
2.2.4 The Levant ......................................... 19
Sampling the Southern Levant ....................... 20
2.2.5 Regions Not Sampled: Southeastern Europe and
Anatolia ........................................... 22
3 Building Bridges from High-Level Theory: Part One of
a Middle-Range Theory for Paleolithic Culture History ..... 23
3.1 The Building Blocks: Past Theoretical Treatment of
Culture Historical Processes and Artifact Variability ..... 24
3.1.1 Migrationism ....................................... 24
3.1.2 Boas and the Kulturkreislehre: The Rise of
Diffusionism ....................................... 25
3.1.3 The Americanist Culture History School of
Archaeology ........................................ 27
3.1.4 The Fall of Culture History and the Rise of the
Processual Agenda .................................. 27
3.1.5 Sources of Artifact Variability: Style Theory
from Binford to Wobst to Wiessner .................. 29
3.1.6 Style Theory from Sackett to Lechtman .............. 32
3.1.7 The Nested Nature of Style Theory .................. 37
3.1.8 Approach I: Carr's Unified Middle-Range Theory of
Artifact Design .................................... 39
3.1.9 Approach II: Chavne Operatoire and the French
Technologie School ................................. 42
3.1.10 Approach III: Behavioral Archaeology and
Behavioral Chain Analysis .......................... 46
3.1.11 Approach IV: The Organization of Technology ........ 49
3.1.12 Causation in Artifact Design ....................... 53
The Problem with Utilitarian Function as
a Default Assumption for Artifact Form ............. 53
Proximate and Ultimate Evolutionary Mechanisms
in Technological Change ............................ 55
Emic versus Etic Recognition of Artifact Design
Variation .......................................... 58
Evolutionary Psychology and Material Culture ....... 60
Reinserting Social Function into the Evolutionary
Ecology of Lithic Artifact Variation ............... 61
3.1.13 Combining the Four Approaches to Explaining
Artifact Variability ............................... 61
3.2 Culture History as Evolutionary Process ................... 63
3.2.1 Three of the Four Forces of Evolution .............. 63
3.2.2 Cultural Transmission Theory ....................... 65
3.2.3 The Processual Understanding of Culture
Historical Mechanisms .............................. 69
3.2.4 The Processual Understanding of Culture Contact
among Foragers ..................................... 73
The Problem of Scale and the Vцlkerwanderungen ..... 74
Definition of Culture Historical Processes ......... 78
3.2.5 Social Intimacy and the Taskscape Visibility
Concept ............................................ 79
The Social Side of the Curation Concept ............ 88
How to Choose Appropriate Units of Analysis ........ 90
3.3 Bridging from the Other Bank: The Need to Model Knapper
Technological Decisions from the Artifact Up .............. 92
4 Building Bridges from Low-Level Theory: Part Two of
a Middle-Range Theory for Paleolithic Culture History ..... 93
4.1 Which Methodology: French, American, or Neither? .......... 94
4.2 What We Know the Knapper Chooses During the
Flintknapping Process ..................................... 98
4.2.1 Conceptual Modeling of the Observational
Learning of the Flintknapping Process .............. 99
4.2.2 Lessons Learned from Experimental Archaeology ..... 110
4.2.3 Changes in the Number of Domains Necessitated by
the Taskscape Visibility Concept from Chapter 3 .. 116
4.3 To Make a Stone Soup: The Description of the
Technological Signature for Blank Production ............. 119
4.3.1 Domain 1. Core Modification ....................... 120
Domain 1. Step 1. Core Orientation ................ 121
Domain 1. Step 2. Core Management ................. 123
4.3.2 Domain 2. Platform Maintenance .................... 124
Domain 2. Step 1. Debitage Platform Treatment ..... 125
Domain 2. Step 2. Exterior Platform Angle ......... 125
Domain 2. Step 3. Platform Thickness .............. 126
4.3.3 Domain 3. Direction of Core Exploitation .......... 126
Domain 3. Step 1. Direction of Early
Exploitation ............................ 130
Domain 3. Step 2. Direction of Late Exploitation .. 130
4.3.4 Domain 4. Dorsal Surface Convexity ................ 132
Domain 4. Step 1. Elongation of the Longitudinal
Convexity (Length/Width Ratio) .......... 132
Domain 4. Step 2. Shape of Convexity: Debitage
Lateral Edges ........................... 133
Domain 4. Step 3. Curvature of the Convexity:
Profile ................................. 133
Domain 4. Step 4. Debitage Cross-section Types .... 134
Domain 4. Step 5. Vertical Convexity (Width/
Thickness Ratio) ........................ 135
4.4 Description of the Morphology of the Tool Kit ............ 136
Step 1. Tool Laminarity (Length/Width Ratio) ............. 136
Step 2. Tool Vertical Convexity (Width/Thickness Ratio) .. 136
Step 3. Shape of Cutting Edges: Lateral Edge Type ........ 136
Step 4. Shape of the Distal Terminus ..................... 136
Step 5. Curvature of the Cutting Edge: Blank Profile ..... 137
Step 6. Application of Unique Retouch .................... 137
Step 7. Location of Retouch as Tool Types ................ 137
4.5 Evaluating the Statistical Independence of the Units of
Analysis ................................................. 138
4.6 Evaluating the Comparability of Assemblages .............. 142
4.7 Procedures for the Pair-wise Comparison of Assemblages ... 147
4.8 Connecting the Bridging Arguments between High-level
and Low-level Theory ..................................... 151
4.8.1 Cultural Transmission versus Independent
Innovation: The Model Predictions ................. 151
4.8.2 Expectations of the Three Hypotheses .............. 152
Expectation Number 1 (Antecedents: Continuity
in Technical Choices) ............................. 152
Expectation Number 2 (Number of Changes in
Technical Choices) ................................ 153
Expectation Number 3 (Number of Domains
Affected by Change) ............................... 154
Expectation Number 4 (Enculturation versus
Stimulus Diffusion) ............................... 154
Expectation Number 5 (Parsimony of the
Inter-regional Sequence) .......................... 157
4.8.3 Evaluation of the Goodness of Fit ................. 160
5 Regional Patterns of Behavior: Central Europe ............ 161
5.1 Kulna Cave, Layer 7a ..................................... 161
5.1.1 Site Background ................................... 161
5.1.2 Sampling .......................................... 162
5.1.3 Blank Production .................................. 162
Core Modification ................................. 162
Platform Maintenance .............................. 164
Direction of Core Exploitation .................... 164
Dorsal Surface Convexity .......................... 166
5.1.4 Tool Kit Morphology ............................... 166
Intensity of Tool and Core Reduction .............. 168
5.2 Stránská skala Ilia, Layer 4 ............................. 171
5.2.1 Site Background ................................... 171
5.2.2 Sampling .......................................... 174
5.2.3 Blank Production .................................. 174
Core Modification ................................. 174
Platform Maintenance .............................. 176
Direction of Core Exploitation .................... 176
Dorsal Surface Convexity .......................... 180
5.2.4 Tool Kit Morphology ............................... 180
Intensity of Tool and Core Reduction .............. 183
5.3 Stránská skála III, Layer 5 .............................. 183
5.3.1 Site Background ................................... 183
5.3.2 Sampling .......................................... 184
5.3.3 Blank Production .................................. 184
Core Modification ................................. 184
Platform Maintenance .............................. 187
Direction of Core Exploitation .................... 187
Dorsal Surface Convexity .......................... 190
5.3.4 Tool Kit Morphology ............................... 191
Intensity of Tool and Core Reduction .............. 192
5.4 Vedrovice V .............................................. 193
5.4.1 Site Background ................................... 193
5.4.2 Sampling .......................................... 196
5.4.3 Blank Production .................................. 196
Core Modification ................................. 196
Platform Maintenance .............................. 198
Direction of Core Exploitation .................... 198
Dorsal Surface Convexity System ................... 199
5.4.4 Tool Kit Morphology ............................... 199
Intensity of Tool and Core Reduction .............. 200
5.5 Stránská skála IIIс ...................................... 202
5.5.1 Site Background ................................... 202
5.5.2 Sampling .......................................... 203
5.5.3 Blank Production .................................. 203
Core Modification ................................. 203
Platform Maintenance .............................. 204
Direction of Core Exploitation .................... 207
Dorsal Surface Convexity .......................... 209
5.5.4 Tool Kit Morphology ............................... 209
Intensity of Tool and Core Reduction .............. 211
5.6 Aurignacian Industries from Stránská skála IIа Layer 4
and IIIa Layer 3 ......................................... 211
5.6.1 Site Background ................................... 211
5.6.2 Sampling .......................................... 212
5.6.3 Blank Production .................................. 212
5.6.4 Core Modification ................................. 212
Platform Maintenance .............................. 214
Direction of Core Exploitation .................... 214
Dorsal Surface Convexity .......................... 216
5.6.4 Tool Manufacture .................................. 216
Intensity of Tool and Core Reduction .............. 216
5.7 Comparison of Central European Flintknapping Behaviors ... 218
5.7.1 Kulna Layer 7a versus Stránská skála Ilia
Layer 4 ........................................... 221
Blank Production .................................. 221
Tool Kit Morphology ............................... 223
5.7.2 Stránská skála IIIa Layer 4 and Stránská skála
III Layer 5 ....................................... 225
Blank Production .................................. 225
Tool Kit Morphology ............................... 229
5.7.3 Stránská skála III Layer 5 versus Vedrovice V ..... 229
Blank Production .................................. 232
Tool Kit Morphology ............................... 233
5.7.4 Stránská skála IIIa Layer 4 and Stránská skála
Шс ................................................ 233
Blank Production .................................. 235
Tool Kit Morphology ............................... 237
5.7.5 Stránská skála III Layer 5 versus Stránská skála
Шс ................................................ 237
Blank Production .................................. 277
Tool Kit Morphology ............................... 240
5.7.6 Stránská skála IIIc versus Vedrovice V ............ 240
Blank Production .................................. 242
Tool Kit Morphology ............................... 243
5.7.7 Vedrovice V and the Aurignacian of Stránská
skála IIIa-3 and IIa-4 ............................ 244
Blank Production .................................. 246
Tool Kit Morphology ............................... 248
5.7.8 Stránská skála III Layer 5 versus the
Aurignacian of Stránská skála IIа and IIIа ........ 248
Blank Production .................................. 249
Tool Kit Morphology ............................... 251
5.7.9 Kulna Layer 7a versus Vedrovice V ................. 251
Blank Production .................................. 255
Tool Kit Morphology ............................... 257
5.8 Significance of the Central European Sequence for Model
Expectations 1-4 ......................................... 258
6 Regional Patterns of Behavior: Eastern Europe ............ 263
6.1 Molodova V Layer 11 ...................................... 263
6.1.1 Site Background ................................... 263
6.1.2 Sampling .......................................... 264
6.1.3 Blank Production .................................. 264
6.1.4 Core Modification ................................. 264
Platform Maintenance .............................. 266
Direction of Core Exploitation .................... 266
Dorsal Surface Convexity .......................... 269
6.1.4 Tool Kit Morphology ............................... 269
Intensity of Tool and Core Reduction ..................... 269
6.2 Korolevo II Complex II ................................... 270
6.2.1 Site Background ................................... 270
6.2.2 Sampling .......................................... 273
6.2.3 Blank Production .................................. 273
Core Modification ................................. 273
Platform Maintenance .............................. 274
Direction of Core Exploitation .................... 274
Dorsal Surface Convexity .......................... 276
6.2.4 Tool Kit Morphology ............................... 277
Intensity of Tool and Core Reduction .............. 278
6.3 Korolevo I Layer Ia ...................................... 279
6.3.1 Site Background ................................... 279
6.3.2 Sampling .......................................... 281
6.3.3 Blank Production .................................. 281
Core Modification ................................. 281
Platform Maintenance .............................. 282
Direction of Core Exploitation .................... 282
Dorsal Surface Convexity .......................... 284
6.3.4 Tool Kit Morphology ............................... 284
Intensity of Tool and Core Reduction .............. 284
6.4 Comparison of Eastern European Flintknapping Behaviors ... 287
6.4.1 Molodova V Layer II versus Korolevo II
Complex II ........................................ 287
Blank Production .................................. 288
Tool Kit Morphology ............................... 291
6.4.2 Korolevo II Complex II versus Korolevo I Layer
Ia ................................................ 291
Blank Production .................................. 293
Tool Kit Morphology ............................... 293
6.5 Significance of the Eastern European Sequence for Model
Expectations 1-4 ......................................... 295
7 Regional Patterns of Behavior: The Levant ................ 299
7.1 Kebara Cave Unit VI ...................................... 299
7.1.1 Site Background ................................... 299
7.1.2 Sampling .......................................... 299
7.1.3 Blank Production .................................. 303
Core Modification ................................. 303
Platform Maintenance .............................. 303
Direction of Core Exploitation .................... 303
Dorsal Surface Convexity .......................... 305
7.1.4 Tool Kit Morphology ............................... 305
Intensity of Tool and Core Reduction .............. 308
7.2 Boker Tachtit Level 1 .................................... 310
7.2.1 Site Background ................................... 310
7.2.2 Sampling .......................................... 310
7.2.3 Blank Production (A Reply to Marks 2003 and
Belfer-Cohen and Goring-Morris 2003) .............. 312
Core Modification ................................. 312
Platform Maintenance .............................. 312
Direction of Core Exploitation .................... 316
Dorsal Surface Convexity .......................... 323
7.2.4 Tool Kit Morphology ............................... 324
Intensity of Tool and Core Reduction .............. 325
7.3 Boker Tachtit Level 2 .................................... 326
7.3.1 Site Background ................................... 326
7.3.2 Sampling .......................................... 326
7.3.3 Blank Production .................................. 326
Core Modification ................................. 326
Platform Maintenance .............................. 326
Direction of Core Exploitation .................... 328
Dorsal Surface Convexity .......................... 332
7.3.4 Tool Kit Morphology ............................... 333
Intensity of Tool and Core Reduction .............. 335
7.4 Boker Tachtit Level 4 .................................... 335
7.4.1 Site Background ................................... 335
7.4.2 Sampling .......................................... 335
7.4.3 Blank Production .................................. 339
Core Modification ................................. 339
Platform Maintenance .............................. 339
Direction of Core Exploitation .................... 339
Dorsal Surface Convexity .......................... 341
7.4.4 Tool Kit Morphology ............................... 341
Intensity of Tool and Core Reduction .............. 341
7.5 Kebara Cave Unit IV ...................................... 343
7.5.1 Site Background ................................... 343
7.5.2 Sampling .......................................... 345
7.5.3 Blank Production .................................. 346
Core Modification ................................. 346
7.5.1 Platform Maintenance .............................. 346
Direction of Core Exploitation .................... 346
Dorsal Surface Convexity .......................... 346
7.5.4 Tool Kit Morphology ............................... 347
Intensity of Tool and Core Reduction .............. 347
7.6 Kebara Cave Unit III ..................................... 349
7.6.1 Site Background ................................... 349
7.6.2 Sampling .......................................... 349
7.6.3 Blank Production .................................. 349
Core Modification ................................. 349
Platform Maintenance .............................. 351
Direction of Core Exploitation .................... 352
Dorsal Surface Convexity .......................... 353
7.6.4 Tool Kit Morphology ............................... 353
Intensity of Tool and Core Reduction .............. 354
7.7 Kebara Cave Unit II ...................................... 356
7.7.1 Site Background ................................... 356
7.7.2 Sampling .......................................... 356
7.7.3 Blank Production .................................. 356
Core Modification ................................. 356
Platform Maintenance .............................. 358
Direction of Core Exploitation .................... 359
Dorsal Surface Convexity .......................... 359
7.7.4 Tool Kit Morphology ............................... 359
Intensity of Tool and Core Reduction .............. 361
7.8 Kebara Cave Unit I ....................................... 362
7.8.1 Site Background ................................... 362
7.8.2 Sampling .......................................... 362
7.8.3 Blank Production .................................. 362
Core Modification ................................. 362
Platform Maintenance .............................. 364
Direction of Core Exploitation .................... 364
Dorsal Surface Convexity .......................... 364
7.8.4 Tool Kit Morphology ............................... 366
Intensity of Tool and Core Reduction .............. 366
7.9 Comparison of Levantine Flintknapping Behaviors .......... 368
7.9.1 Comparison of Kebara Cave Unit VI and Boker
Tachtit Level 1 ................................... 369
Blank Production .................................. 369
Tool Kit Morphology ............................... 371
7.9.2 Comparison of Boker Tachtit Level 1 and Boker
Tachtit Level 2 ................................... 373
Blank Production .................................. 374
Tool Kit Morphology ............................... 377
7.9.3 Comparison of Boker Tachtit Level 2 and Kebara
Cave Unit IV ...................................... 377
Blank Production .................................. 377
Tool Kit Morphology ............................... 379
7.9.4 Comparison of Boker Tachtit Level 2 and Boker
Tachtit Level 4 ................................... 379
Blank Production .................................. 380
Tool Kit Morphology ............................... 382
7.9.5 Comparison of Kebara Cave Unit IV and Unit III .... 383
Blank Production .................................. 383
Tool Kit Morphology ............................... 385
7.9.6 Comparison of Kebara Cave Unit III and Boker
Tachtit Level 4 ................................... 385
Blank Production .................................. 386
Tool Kit Morphology ............................... 387
7.9.7 Comparison of Kebara Cave Unit III and Unit II .... 387
Blank Production .................................. 390
Tool Kit Morphology ............................... 390
7.9.8 Comparison of Kebara Cave Unit II and Unit I ...... 393
Blank Production .................................. 393
Tool Kit Morphology ............................... 393
7.10 Significance of the Levantine Sequence for Model
Expectations 1-4 ......................................... 395
8 Inter-Regional Pattern of Change ......................... 399
8.1 Inter-regional Pair-wise Comparisons ..................... 399
8.1.1 Comparison of Boker Tachtit Level 1 and Stránská
skála IIIа Layer 4 ............................... 399
Blank Production .................................. 401
Tool Kit Morphology ............................... 401
8.1.2 Comparison of Boker Tachtit Level 1 and Korolevo
II-II ............................................. 401
Blank Production .................................. 404
Tool Kit Morphology ............................... 406
8.1.3 Comparison of Stránská skála IIIa Layer 4 and
Korolevo II-II .................................... 406
Blank Production .................................. 406
Tool Kit Morphology ............................... 408
8.1.4 Comparison of Boker Tachtit Level 2 and Stránská
skála Ша Layer 4 .................................. 411
Blank Production .................................. 411
Tool Kit Morphology ............................... 414
8.1.5 Comparison of Boker Tachtit Level 2 and Korolevo
II-II ............................................. 415
Blank Production .................................. 416
Tool Kit Morphology ............................... 416
8.1.6 Comparison of Kebara Cave Unit I and the
Aurignacian of Stránská skála Па .................. 418
Layer 4 and and Ша Layer 3 ........................ 418
Blank Production .................................. 421
Tool Kit Morphology ............................... 421
8.2 An Evaluation of the Inter-regional Sequence of Change ... 421
8.2.1 The Relevance of Regions Not Sampled in this
Research .......................................... 432
9 Conclusions .............................................. 435
9.1 Results .................................................. 436
9.2 Implications for the Origins of Anatomically Modern
Humans ................................................... 437
9.2.1 Symmetric or Asymmetric Transmission .............. 437
9.2.2 Why did the Bohunician Behavioral Package spread
between regions? .................................. 438
9.2.3 Who made the Bohunician Behavioral Package? ....... 439
9.2.4 Role of the Bohunician Behavioral Package in the
Danube Corridor Model ............................. 441
9.3 Methodological Contributions of this Research ............ 442
9.3.1 Paths Not Taken: Alternative Structures of
Analysis .......................................... 443
9.4 Predictions for Future Research .......................... 447
Appendix: Artifact Illustrations .............................. 449
Endnotes ...................................................... 495
References .................................................... 497
Index ......................................................... 571
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