Preface ........................................................ xv
Contributors .................................................. xix
1 Fundamentals of Surface Adhesion, Friction, and
Lubrication ................................................ 1
Ali Faghihnejad and Hongbo Zeng
1.1 Introduction ............................................... 1
1.2 Basic Concepts ............................................. 2
1.2.1 Intermolecular and Surface Forces ................... 2
1.2.2 Surface Energy ...................................... 7
1.3 Adhesion and Contact Mechanics ............................ 12
1.3.1 Hertz Model ........................................ 13
1.3.2 Johnson-Kendall-Roberts Model ...................... 14
1.3.3 Derjaguin-Muller-Toporov Model ..................... 15
1.3.4 Maugis Model ....................................... 16
1.3.5 Indentation ........................................ 16
1.3.6 Effect of Environmental Conditions on Adhesion ..... 18
1.3.7 Adhesion of Rough Surfaces ......................... 19
1.3.8 Adhesion Hysteresis ................................ 20
1.4 Friction .................................................. 20
1.4.1 Amontons' Laws of Friction ......................... 20
1.4.2 The Basic Models of Friction ....................... 21
1.4.3 Stick-Slip Friction ................................ 26
1.4.4 Directionality of Friction ......................... 29
1.5 Rolling Friction .......................................... 29
1.6 Lubrication ............................................... 31
1.7 Wear ...................................................... 35
1.8 Real Contact Area ......................................... 37
1.9 Modern Tools in Tribology ................................. 39
1.9.1 X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy ................... 39
1.9.2 Scanning Electron Microscopy ....................... 39
1.9.3 Infrared Spectroscopy .............................. 40
1.9.4 Optical Tweezers or Optical Trapping ............... 40
1.9.5 Atomic Force Microscope (AFM) ...................... 41
1.9.6 Surface Forces Apparatus (SFA) ..................... 45
1.10 Computer Simulations in Tribology ......................... 47
Acknowledgment ............................................ 49
References ................................................ 49
2 Adhesion and Tribological Characteristics of Ion-
Containing Polymer Brushes Prepared by Controlled Radical
Polymerization ............................................ 59
Motoyasu Kobayashi, Tatsuya Ishikawa, and Atsushi
Takahara
2.1 Introduction .............................................. 59
2.2 Controlled Synthesis of Ion-Containing Polymer Brushes .... 60
2.3 Wettability of Polyelectrolyte Brushes .................... 63
2.4 Adhesion and Detachment between Polyelectrolyte Brushes ... 66
2.5 Water Lubrication and Frictional Properties of
Polyelectrolyte Brushes ................................... 70
2.6 Conclusions ............................................... 76
References ................................................ 76
3 Lubrication and Wear Protection of Natural (Bio)Systems ... 83
George W. Greene, Dong Woog Lee, Jing Yu, Saurabh Das,
Xavier Banquy, and Jacob N. Israelachvili
3.1 Introduction .............................................. 83
3.1.1 What Makes Biolubrication Unique? .................. 84
3.1.2 Theory of Friction ................................. 85
3.2 Boundary Lubrication ...................................... 89
3.2.1 Dry/Contact Lubrication ............................ 90
3.2.2 Thin Film Boundary Lubrication ..................... 91
3.2.3 Hydration Layers ................................... 92
3.2.4 Intermediate Boundary Lubrication .................. 93
3.2.5 Thick Film Boundary Lubrication .................... 95
3.2.6 Hyaluronic Acid (HA) Interfacial Layer ............. 96
3.3 Fluid Film Lubrication .................................... 97
3.3.1 Elastohydrodynamic Lubrication in Biological
Systems ............................................ 98
3.3.2 Weeping Lubrication ............................... 104
3.4 Multimodal Lubrication ................................... 105
3.4.1 Mixed Lubrication and the "Stribeck Curve" ........ 106
3.4.2 Adaptive Lubrication .............................. 108
3.4.3 Mechanically Controlled Adaptive Lubrication ...... 109
3.5 Wear ..................................................... 112
3.5.1 How Are Friction and Wear Related? ................ 112
3.5.2 Characterization, Measurement, and Evaluation
of Wear ........................................... 113
3.5.3 Biological Strategies for Controlling Wear ........ 119
3.5.4 Wear of Soft, Compliant Biological Materials ...... 120
3.5.5 Controlling Wear in Hard Biological Materials:
Self-Sharpening Mechanism in Rodent Teeth ......... 122
3.6 Biomimetic and Engineering Approaches of Biolubrication .. 123
3.6.1 Hydrogel Coatings as Artificial Cartilage
Materials ......................................... 123
3.6.2 Mimicking Synovial Fluid Lubricating Properties:
Polyelectrolytes Lubrication ...................... 124
3.6.3 Superlubrication by Aggrecan Mimics: End-Grafted
Polymers and the Brush Paradigm ................... 125
3.6.4 Perspectives and Future Research Avenues .......... 126
Acknowledgment ........................................... 127
References ............................................... 127
4 Polymer Brushes and Surface Forces ....................... 135
Jacob Klein, Wuge H. Briscoe, Meng Chen, Erika Eiser,
Nir Kampf, Uri Raviv, Rafael Tadmor, and Larissa Tsarkova
4.1 Introduction ............................................. 135
4.2 Some Generic Properties of Polymer Brushes ............... 136
4.3 Sliding of High-rs Polymer Brushes: The Semidilute
to Vitrified Transition .................................. 138
4.4 Sliding Mechanism and Relaxation of Sheared Brushes ...... 140
4.5 Compression, Shear, and Relaxation of Melt Brushes ....... 146
4.6 Shear Swelling of Polymer Brushes ........................ 150
4.7 Telechelic Brushes ....................................... 155
4.8 Polyelectrolyte Brushes in Aqueous Media ................. 158
4.8.1 Charged Brushes: The Symmetric Case ............... 159
4.8.2 Charged Brushes: The Asymmetric Case .............. 162
4.9 Zwitterionic Polymer Brushes ............................. 163
4.10 Summary .................................................. 166
Acknowledgments .......................................... 167
Appendix: Self-Regulation and Velocity Dependence of
Brush-Brush Friction ..................................... 167
References ............................................... 169
5 Adhesion, Wetting, and Superhydrophobicity of Polymeric
Surfaces ................................................. 177
Mehdi Mortazavi and Michael Nosonovsky
5.1 Introduction ............................................. 177
5.2 Adhesion between Polymeric Surfaces ...................... 178
5.2.1 Van der Waals Forces .............................. 179
5.2.2 Capillary Forces .................................. 181
5.2.3 Electrostatic Double-Layer Forces ................. 182
5.2.4 Solvation Forces .................................. 183
5.2.5 Mechanical Contact Force .......................... 183
5.3 Wetting of Polymers ...................................... 185
5.3.1 Definition of Contact Angle: Young's Equation ..... 185
5.3.2 Rough Surfaces: Wenzel's Model .................... 186
5.3.3 Heterogeneous Surfaces: Cassie-Baxter Model ....... 187
5.4 Fabrication of Superhydrophobic Polymeric Materials ...... 189
5.4.1 Replication of Natural Surfaces ................... 189
5.4.2 Molding or Template-Assisted Techniques ........... 192
5.4.3 Roughening by Introduction of Nanoparticles ....... 197
5.4.4 Surface Modification by Low Surface Energy
Materials ......................................... 202
5.4.5 Electrospinning ................................... 205
5.4.6 Solution Method ................................... 207
5.4.7 Plasma, Electron, and Laser Treatment ............. 210
5.5 Surface Characterization ................................. 213
5.5.1 Surface Chemistry ................................. 213
5.5.2 Wetting Property .................................. 213
5.5.3 Microscopy Techniques ............................. 215
5.6 Conclusions .............................................. 218
Acknowledgments .......................................... 218
References ............................................... 218
6 Marine Bioadhesion on Polymer Surfaces and Strategies
for Its Prevention ....................................... 227
Sitaraman Krishnan
6.1 Introduction ............................................. 227
6.2 Protein Adsorption on Solid Surfaces ..................... 230
6.2.1 Protein-Repellant Surfaces ........................ 230
6.3 Polymer Coatings Resistant to Marine Biofouling .......... 242
6.3.1 Hydrophobic Marine Fouling-Release Coatings:
The Role of Surface Energy and Modulus ................... 243
6.3.2 Hydrophilic Coatings .............................. 255
6.3.3 Amphiphilic Coatings .............................. 257
6.3.4 Self-Polishing Coatings ........................... 262
6.3.5 Coatings with Topographically Patterned
Surfaces .......................................... 262
6.3.6 Antifouling Surfaces with Surface-Immobilized
Enzymes and Bioactive Fouling-Deterrent
Molecules ......................................... 265
6.4 Conclusion ............................................... 266
Acknowledgments .......................................... 266
References ............................................... 267
7 Molecular Engineering of Peptides for Cellular Adhesion
Control .................................................. 283
Won Hyuk Suh, Badriprasad Ananthanarayanan, and Matthew
Tirrell
7.1 Introduction: Cells, Biomacromolecules, and Lipidated
Peptides ................................................. 283
7.2 Biomaterials ............................................. 285
7.3 Chemistry Tools .......................................... 287
7.3.1 Bioconjugate Chemistry ............................ 287
7.3.2 Solid-Phase Peptide Synthesis ..................... 288
7.4 Self-Assembly of Lipidated Peptides: Peptide
Amphiphiles Engineering .................................. 289
7.4.1 Double-Tailed Peptide Amphiphile .................. 289
7.4.2 Single-Tailed (Monoalkylated) Peptide
Amphiphiles ....................................... 290
7.5 Biomimetic Peptide Amphiphile Surface Engineering Case
Studies .................................................. 290
7.5.1 Melanoma Cell Adhesion on a Lipid Bilayer
Incorporating RGD ................................. 292
7.5.2 Adhesion of α5&beta1 Receptors to Biomimetic
Substrates ........................................ 292
7.5.3 Human Umbilical Vein Endothelial Cell Adhesion .... 293
7.5.4 Cell Adhesion on a Polymerized Monolayer .......... 295
7.5.5 Cell Adhesion and Growth on Patterned Lipid
Bilayers .......................................... 296
7.5.6 Cell Adhesion on Metallic Surfaces ................ 297
7.5.7 Bone Marrow Mononuclear Cell Adhesion ............. 298
7.5.8 Nanofibrous Peptide Amphiphile Gels for
Endothelial Cell Adhesion ......................... 299
7.6 Neural Stem Cells on Surfaces: A Deeper Look at Cell
Adhesion Control ......................................... 299
7.6.1 The Stem Cell Microenvironment .................... 299
7.6.2 Neural Stem Cells on Lipid Bilayers ............... 299
7.6.3 Vesicle Fusion and Bilayer Characterization ....... 300
7.6.4 Initial NSC Adhesion on Peptide Surfaces .......... 300
7.6.5 NSC Proliferation on Peptide Surfaces ............. 301
7.6.6 NSC Differentiation on Peptide Surfaces ........... 302
7.7 Overview of Molecular Engineering Designs for Cellular
Adhesion ................................................. 303
7.7.1 Self-Assembled Peptide Surfaces ................... 303
7.7.2 Cell Adhesion Molecule RGD Surface Density
Control: An Example ............................... 303
7.7.3 Cell Adhesion Molecule Accessibility (Exposure)
Control ........................................... 307
7.8 Conclusion ............................................... 307
Acknowledgments .......................................... 308
References ............................................... 308
8 A Microcosm of Wet Adhesion: Dissecting Protein
Interactions in Mussel Attachment Plaques ................ 319
Dong Soo Hwang, Wei Wei, Nadine R. Rodriguez-Martinez,
Eric Danner, and J. Herbert Waite
8.1 Introduction ............................................. 319
8.2 Mussel Adhesion .......................................... 320
8.2.1 Marine Surfaces ................................... 320
8.2.2 Byssal Attachment ................................. 320
8.2.3 Direct Observation of Plaque Attachment ........... 323
8.3 Surface Forces Apparatus ................................. 323
8.3.1 Making the SFA Relevant to Biological
Environments ...................................... 325
8.4 Assessing Protein Contributions by SFA ................... 327
8.4.1 Asymmetric/Symmetric Configurations ............... 327
8.4.2 Protein-Surface Interactions ...................... 330
8.4.3 Protein-Protein Interactions ...................... 335
8.5 Conclusions .............................................. 343
8.5.1 Insights about Protein Interactions ............... 343
8.5.2 Effects of DOPA Reactivity on Adhesion ............ 344
8.5.3 Mussel Foot Controls the Microenvironment around
DOPA .............................................. 345
8.5.4 Other Factors Influencing Adhesion ................ 345
Acknowledgments .......................................... 346
References ............................................... 346
9 Gecko-Inspired Polymer Adhesives ......................... 351
Yiğit Mengüç and Metin Sitti
9.1 Introduction ............................................. 351
9.1.1 A Note on Terminology ............................. 352
9.2 Biological Inspirations .................................. 354
9.2.1 Key Discoveries in Gecko Adhesion ................. 354
9.2.2 Structured Adhesion in Other Animals .............. 355
9.2.3 Summary of Observed Principles of Micro-
Structured Adhesives .............................. 357
9.3 Mechanical Principles of Structured Adhesive Surfaces .... 359
9.3.1 Adhesion .......................................... 359
9.3.2 Friction .......................................... 365
9.4 Gecko-Inspired Adhesives and Their Fabrication ........... 367
9.4.1 Macro- and Microscale Fibers ...................... 367
9.4.2 Nanoscale Fibers .................................. 371
9.4.3 Hierarchical Fibers ............................... 372
9.5 Applications of Bioinspired Adhesives .................... 374
9.5.1 Robotics .......................................... 374
9.5.2 Safety and Medical Devices ........................ 377
9.6 Future Directions: Unsolved Challenges and Possible
Applications ............................................. 378
References ............................................... 379
10 Adhesion and Friction Mechanisms of Polymer Surfaces
and Thin Films ........................................... 391
Hongbo Zeng
10.1 Introduction ............................................. 391
10.2 Adhesion and Contact Mechanics ........................... 392
10.2.1 Surface Energies .................................. 392
10.2.2 Advances in Contact and Adhesion Mechanics ........ 393
10.3 Adhesion of Glassy Polymers and Elastomers ............... 398
10.3.1 Adhesion Interface: Chain Pull-Out ................ 399
10.3.2 Glassy Polymers: Transition from Chain Pull-Out,
Chain Scission to Crazing ......................... 403
10.3.3 Adhesion Promoters for Polymer Systems ............ 407
10.4 Experimental Advances in Adhesion and Friction between
Polymer Surfaces and Thin Films .......................... 408
10.5 Adhesion and Fracture Mechanism of Polymer Thin Films:
from Liquid to Solid-Like Behaviors ...................... 416
10.6 Adhesion and Friction between Rough Polymer Surfaces ..... 423
10.7 Friction between Immiscible Polymer Melts ................ 425
10.8 Hydrophobic Interactions between Polymer Surfaces ........ 426
10.9 Perspectives and Future Research Avenues ................. 431
Acknowledgment ........................................... 432
References ............................................... 432
11 Recent Advances in Rubber Friction in the Context of
Tire Traction ............................................ 443
Xiao-Dong Pan
11.1 Introduction ............................................. 443
11.2 Background on Rubber Friction and Tire Traction .......... 445
11.2.1 Characterization of Surface Roughness and Contact
Mechanics ......................................... 453
11.3 Recent Innovations on Tire Tread Compounds ............... 457
11.4 Rubber Friction under Stationary Sliding on Rough
Surfaces ................................................. 461
11.4.1 Theory of Rubber Friction on Rough Surfaces
by Klüppel and Heinrich ........................... 462
11.4.2 Persson's Model on Rubber Friction ................ 471
11.4.3 The Model by Heinrich and Klüppel versus
the Model by Persson: Some Comparisons ............ 474
11.5 Rubber Friction under Nonstationary Conditions ........... 475
11.6 Interfacial Effects on Rubber Friction ................... 478
11.6.1 Rubber Surface Treatment .......................... 482
11.6.2 Molecular Scale Probing of Contact/Sliding
Interface ......................................... 482
11.7 Rubber Friction Involving Textured Surfaces .............. 484
11.8 Field Measurements within a Frictional Contact ........... 486
11.9 Other Studies on or Related to Rubber Friction ........... 488
11.10 Concluding Remarks ...................................... 490
References ............................................... 491
12 Polymers, Adhesion, and Paper Materials .................. 501
Boxin Zhao, Dhamodaran Arunbabu, and Brendan McDonald
12.1 Introduction ............................................. 501
12.2 Polymer Nature of Paper .................................. 502
12.2.1 Paper as a Network of Fibers ...................... 502
12.2.2 Wood Fibers and Its Natural Polymeric
Constituents ...................................... 503
12.2.3 Cellulose Fibers .................................. 508
12.3 Functional Polymers and Sizing Agents Used in
Papermaking .............................................. 509
12.3.1 Major Functions of Polymer Additives .............. 509
12.3.2 Common Functional Polymers ........................ 514
12.3.3 Sizing Agents ..................................... 519
12.4 Polymer Adhesion and the Formation of Paper .............. 520
12.4.1 Intermolecular Forces or Molecular Adhesion
Processes ......................................... 521
12.4.2 Capillary Forces .................................. 524
12.4.3 Work of Adhesion and Johnson-Kendall-Roberts
Contact Mechanics ................................. 524
12.4.4 The Formation of Interfiber Bonds ................. 526
12.4.5 Linkage between Molecular Adhesion to Paper
Strength .......................................... 530
12.5 Polymer Adhesion Measurement ............................. 533
12.5.1 Shear Adhesion Testing ............................ 533
12.5.2 Peeling Adhesion Testing .......................... 535
12.5.3 JKR-Type Contact Adhesion Testing ................. 536
12.5.4 AFM Colloidal Probe Testing ....................... 537
12.6 Summary and Perspectives ................................. 538
References ............................................... 539
13 Carbohydrates and Their Roles in Biological Recognition
Processes ................................................ 545
Keshwaree Babooram and Ravin Narain
13.1 Introduction ............................................. 545
13.2 Recent Advances in the Field of Carbohydrate Chemistry ... 546
13.2.1 Glycopolymers ..................................... 546
13.2.2 Carbohydrate Microarrays .......................... 550
13.2.3 Carbohydrate-Based Vaccines ....................... 552
13.3 Molecular Interactions of Carbohydrates in Cell
Recognition .............................................. 557
13.4 Techniques Used in the Identification of Carbohydrate
Interactions in Cell Recognition ......................... 558
13.4.1 Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) ..................... 558
13.4.2 Cantilever Microarray Biosensors .................. 563
13.5 Conclusions and Future Trends ............................ 564
References ............................................... 566
14 The Impact of Bacterial Surface Polymers on Bacterial
Adhesion ................................................. 575
Yang Liu
14.1 Bacterial Adhesion ....................................... 575
14.1.1 Significance of Bacterial Adhesion ................ 575
14.1.2 Mechanisms of Bacterial Adhesion .................. 576
14.2 The Impact of Bacterial Surface Polymers on Bacterial
Adhesion ................................................. 577
14.2.1 Bacterial Surface Polymers ........................ 577
14.2.2 Impact of Bacterial Surface Polymers on Adhesion .. 579
14.3 Methods and Models for Understanding Interaction
Mechanisms of Bacterial Adhesion ......................... 582
14.3.1 Techniques for Studying Bacterial Surface
Polymers .......................................... 582
14.3.2 Models to Explain Bacterial Adhesion Mechanisms ... 590
References 600
15 Adhesion, Friction, and Lubrication of Polymeric
Nanoparticles and Their Applications ..................... 617
Bassem Kheireddin, Ming Zhang, and Mustafa Akbulut
15.1 Introduction ............................................. 617
15.2 Applications of Polymeric Nanoparticles .................. 617
15.2.1 Biomedical Applications of PNPs ................... 618
15.2.2 Energy Storage..................................... 621
15.2.3 Skin Care ......................................... 622
15.2.4 Sensors ........................................... 623
15.2.5 Electronic Devices ................................ 624
15.3 Methods of Preparation of Polymeric Nanoparticles
(PNPs) ................................................... 625
15.3.1 Dispersion of Preformed Polymers .................. 625
15.3.2 Polymerization of Monomers ........................ 633
15.4 Adhesion of PNP .......................................... 636
15.4.1 Hertz Theory ...................................... 637
15.4.2 JKR Theory ........................................ 637
15.4.3 DMT Theory ........................................ 638
15.4.4 Studies on Adhesion of PNPs ....................... 638
15.5 Adsorption of Polymeric Nanoparticles .................... 641
15.5.1 Adsorption onto Polymeric Nanoparticles ........... 641
15.5.2 Adsorption of Polymeric Nanoparticles on Large
Surfaces .......................................... 642
15.5.3 Adsorption Isotherms .............................. 643
15.5.4 Adsorption Kinetics of Polymeric Nanoparticles
onto Substrates ................................... 644
15.6 Friction of PNP .......................................... 647
15.7 Summary .................................................. 648
References ............................................... 649
16 Electrorheological and Magnetorheological Materials and
Mechanical Properties .................................... 659
Yu Tian, Yonggang Meng, and Shizhu Wen
16.1 Electrorheological and Magnetorheological History ........ 659
16.2 ER/MR Phenomenon ......................................... 661
16.3 ER/MR Materials .......................................... 662
16.4 ER/MR Effect Models ...................................... 664
16.5 Properties of ER/MR Fluids under Shearing, Tension,
and Squeezing ............................................ 667
16.5.1 Shear Properties of ER/MR Fluids .................. 667
16.5.2 Tensile Behavior of ER/MR Fluids .................. 669
16.5.3 Compression of ER/MR Fluids ....................... 672
16.6 Transient Response to Field Strength, Shear Rate,
and Geometry ............................................. 676
16.7 Shear Thickening in ER/MR Fluids at Low Shear Rates ...... 681
16.8 Applications ............................................. 683
References ............................................... 684
Index ......................................................... 691
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