Dedication ...................................................... v
Introduction to the Beam Business ............................... 1
Robert W. Hamm and Marianne E. Hamm
Chapter 1 Ion Implantation for Fabrication of Semiconductor
Devices and Materials ........................................... 9
Michael I. Current
1 Introduction ................................................. 9
2 Applications of Ion Implantation: Devices and Materials ..... 10
2.1 Pre-amorphization ...................................... 12
2.2 Cocktail implants ...................................... 13
2.3 Carbon implants for tensile strained nMOS .............. 14
2.4 Oxygen implants for direct formation of Silicon-on-
Insulator (SOI) wafers ................................. 15
2.5 Hydrogen implants for formation of SOI wafers by
layer transfer ......................................... 15
3 Accelerator Designs ......................................... 16
3.1 Beamline system types .................................. 17
3.2 Accel-decel beamlines .................................. 18
3.3 MeV beamlines .......................................... 22
3.4 Plasma immersion and ion shower implanters ............. 24
3.5 SIMOX high-current, high-temperature implanters ........ 25
4 Ion Source Designs .......................................... 27
4.1 Special ion sources: SIMOX, molecular ions, non-
volatile elements, and large-area beams ................ 31
5 Scanning Methods ............................................ 33
5.1 Beam deflection and wafer motion in orthogonal
directions ............................................. 34
5.2 Spinning wheel and pendulum wafer scanning ............. 36
6 New Directions: Gas Cluster Ions, Photovoltaic Cell
Doping, and MeV Protons for Si Membrane Cutting ............. 39
6.1 Gas cluster ions ....................................... 40
6.2 Doping of Si-based photovoltaic cells .................. 42
6.2.1 Alternatives to implant doping for PV cells ..... 45
6.2.2 Advanced PV cells ............................... 46
6.3 High-current, multi-MeV proton beams for fabrication
of thin Si PV membranes ................................ 47
7 Implantation into Metals and Biomaterials ................... 49
7.1 Metals: hardness, friction, and corrosion .............. 50
7.2 Biomaterials treated by plasma immersion implantation
and deposition ......................................... 51
8 Summary ..................................................... 53
References .................................................. 54
Chapter 2 Electron Beam Materials Processing .................. 57
Donald E. Powers
1 Introduction ................................................ 57
2 Electron Beam Equipment ..................................... 59
3 Electron Beam Welding ....................................... 61
3.1 Large steam turbines ................................... 66
3.2 High efficiency impellers .............................. 68
3.3 Speed gears ............................................ 68
3.4 Drive rings ............................................ 70
4 EB Cutting and Drilling ..................................... 74
5 EB Heat Treating ............................................ 76
6 EB Melting and Casting ...................................... 78
7 Summary and Future Trends ................................... 80
References .................................................. 83
Chapter 3 Electron Beam Materials Irradiators ................ 87
Marshall R. Cleland
1 Introduction ................................................ 87
2 Physical Properties of High-Energy Electrons and X-Rays ..... 89
2.1 High-energy electrons .................................. 89
2.2 High-energy X-rays ..................................... 93
2.3 Radiation dosimetry .................................... 95
2.4 Dose versus electron beam power ........................ 97
2.5 Dose versus electron beam current ...................... 97
3 Industrial Electron Accelerators ............................ 98
3.1 Low-energy accelerators ................................ 98
3.2 Medium-energy accelerators ............................ 104
3.3 High-energy accelerators .............................. 108
4 Major Applications of Industrial EB Irradiators ............ 114
4.1 Cross-linking of materials ............................ 114
4.1.1 Wire and cable insulation ...................... 115
4.1.2 Heat-shrinkable plastic tubing and film ........ 116
4.1.3 Curing of inks, coatings, and adhesives ........ 117
4.1.4 Automobile tires ............................... 118
4.1.5 Polyethylene foam .............................. 118
4.2 Radiation sterilization of medical devices ............ 119
4.3 Irradiation of foods .................................. 124
5 Other EB Irradiation Applications .......................... 126
5.1 Treatment of waste materials .......................... 127
5.2 Cleaning of stack gases ............................... 128
5.3 Curing of composite materials ......................... 128
5.4 Silicon-carbide fiber manufacturing ................... 129
5.5 Production of fuel cells .............................. 129
5.6 Cross-linking of PTFE and rubber sheeting ............. 130
5.7 Seed and soil disinfestation .......................... 130
5.8 Human tissue sterilization ............................ 130
5.9 Direct food contact coatings .......................... 131
6 Summary .................................................... 131
References ................................................. 132
Chapter 4 Accelerator Production of Radionuclides ............ 139
David J. Schlyer and Thomas J. Ruth
1 Introduction ............................................... 139
2 Applications of Radionuclides .............................. 143
2.1 Radiotracers .......................................... 143
2.2 Nuclear medicine imaging .............................. 145
2.3 Therapeutic and other medical applications ............ 148
2.3.1 Brachytherapy .................................. 148
2.3.2 Targeted radiotherapy .......................... 150
2.3.3 Other medical applications ..................... 151
2.4 Industrial ............................................ 151
3 Accelerators for Radionuclide Production ................... 152
3.1 Cyclotrons ............................................ 156
3.1.1 Ion source ..................................... 158
3.1.2 Ion injection .................................. 159
3.1.3 Beam extraction ................................ 159
3.1.4 Beam transport ................................. 160
3.1.5 Targets ........................................ 161
3.1.6 Radiation shielding and facilities
requirements ................................... 161
3.2 Linear accelerators ................................... 162
3.3 Choice of accelerator ................................. 163
4 General Principles of Radionuclide Production .............. 164
4.1 Nuclear reactions ..................................... 164
4.1.1 Coulomb barrier ................................ 165
4.1.2 Reaction models ................................ 165
4.1.3 Q value and threshold energy ................... 167
4.1.4 Cross section .................................. 168
4.2 Optimizing production ................................. 169
4.2.1 Production rate ................................ 170
4.2.2 Saturation factors ............................. 171
4.2.3 Specific activity .............................. 172
5 Accelerator Targetry ....................................... 172
5.1 Stopping power and energy loss ........................ 173
5.2 Energy straggling ..................................... 173
5.3 Small angle multiple scattering ....................... 175
5.4 Beam heating and density reduction .................... 175
5.5 Ionization of target materials ........................ 176
5.6 Radiation damage and activation ....................... 176
5.7 Chemical reactions .................................... 176
5.8 Pressure increases .................................... 177
5.9 Beam focusing ......................................... 178
6 Conclusions and Future Directions .......................... 178
References ................................................. 179
Chapter 5 Industrial Aspects of Ion Beam Analysis ............ 183
Ragnar Hellborg and Harry J. Whitlow
1 Ion Beam Analysis in Industry .............................. 183
2 Accelerators for IB A ...................................... 188
3 Quantity Analysis .......................................... 193
3.1 Introductory remarks .................................. 193
3.2 PIXE technique ........................................ 194
3.3 PIGE technique ........................................ 199
3.4 Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS) ................... 201
4 Depth Profiling Methods .................................... 208
4.1 Introductory remarks .................................. 208
4.2 Fundamentals of RBS and ERDA measurements ............. 209
4.3 Basis of the quantitative analysis in ERDA and RBS .... 214
4.4 Rutherford Backscattering Spectrometry (RBS) .......... 215
4.4.1 Determination of the thickness of the ТЮ2
film ........................................... 219
4.4.2 Determination of the composition of the
titanium oxide film ............................ 222
4.4.3 Analysis of complex RBS spectra ................ 223
4.5 Elastic Recoil Detection Analysis (ERDA) .............. 224
4.6 Nuclear reaction analysis (NRA) ....................... 230
4.7 Charged particle activation analysis (CPAA) ........... 231
5 Industrial Facilities for Ion Beam Analysis ................ 233
References ................................................. 239
Chapter 6 Production and Applications of Neutrons Using
Particle Accelerators ......................................... 243
David L. Chichester
1 Introduction ............................................... 243
2 Neutron Production ......................................... 247
2.1 Ion reactions ......................................... 247
2.1.1 2H + 2H → 3He + n .............................. 251
2.1.2 2H + 3H → 4He + n .............................. 253
2.1.3 1H + 7Li → 7Be + n ............................. 254
2.1.4 2H + 7L → 8Be + n .............................. 255
2.1.5 1H + 9Be → 9B + n .............................. 255
2.1.6 2H + 9Be → 10B + n ............................. 257
2.1.7 Other two-body ion reactions ................... 257
2.2 Reactions using photons ............................... 258
3 Industrial Neutron Production Accelerators ................. 261
3.1 Open-vacuum systems ................................... 261
3.2 Sealed-tube systems ................................... 264
3.2.1 History ........................................ 265
3.2.2 Industrial sealed-tube ENGs .................... 267
3.2.3 Long-lived DD neutron generator design
considerations ................................. 270
3.3 Photoneutron systems .................................. 271
3.4 Other electronic neutron sources ...................... 272
4 Industrial Applications .................................... 273
4.1 Neutron interactions .................................. 274
4.2 Geophysical exploration ............................... 274
4.3 Gauging and radiography ............................... 279
4.4 Laboratory activation analysis ........................ 281
4.5 Biomedical applications ............................... 282
4.6 Bulk material analysis ................................ 282
4.7 Radiation effects testing ............................. 284
4.8 Detection of contraband, high explosives, and
chemical weapon agents ................................ 284
4.9 Fissionable material analysis for safeguards .......... 287
4.10 Fissionable material detection for screening
and security .......................................... 288
4.11 Other applications .................................... 291
5 Summary and Future Trends .................................. 292
References ................................................. 295
Chapter 7 Nondestructive Testing and Inspection Using
Electron Linacs ............................................... 307
William A. Reed
1 Introduction ............................................... 307
1.1 History of X-rays for NDT ............................. 308
1.2 X-ray tubes vs. electron linacs ....................... 310
2 Market Overview ............................................ 311
2.1 Computed tomography ................................... 313
2.2 Metrology and reverse engineering ..................... 314
2.3 Hazardous waste identification ........................ 314
2.4 Portable inspection applications ...................... 315
2.5 Isotope replacement ................................... 315
2.6 Homeland security ..................................... 316
2.7 Air cargo ............................................. 318
3 NDT Electron Linac Technology .............................. 319
3.1 NDT accelerator basics ................................ 320
3.2 Major subsystems ...................................... 322
3.3 Beam properties ....................................... 325
3.3.1 Radiation leakage .............................. 326
3.3.2 Energy spectrum ................................ 326
3.3.3 Beam flatness .................................. 327
3.3.4 Beam symmetry .................................. 328
3.3.5 Focal spot size ................................ 328
3.3.6 Collimation .................................... 329
4 Digital Detectors .......................................... 331
4.1 High energy digital detectors ......................... 333
4.2 Detector performance .................................. 334
5 Traditional Radiographic Testing and Inspection
Applications ............................................... 336
5.1 The radiographic inspection facility .................. 337
5.2 Radiographic principles ............................... 339
5.3 Radiographic procedures ............................... 341
5.3.1 Radiography of castings ........................ 342
5.3.2 Radiography of welds ........................... 342
5.3.3 Radiography of assemblies ...................... 343
5.3.4 Radiography of rocket motors ................... 343
6 Security Inspection Applications ........................... 344
6.1 X-ray cargo inspection ................................ 344
6.2 Recent innovations .................................... 347
6.2.1 Interlaced dual-energy accelerators ............ 348
6.2.2 Advanced detector technology ................... 350
6.2.3 More powerful software ......................... 351
6.3 X-ray cargo screening trends .......................... 352
7 High Energy Industrial CT Applications ..................... 354
7.1 Engineering and design applications ................... 356
7.2 Production environment ................................ 356
8 Quality Standards and Measurements ......................... 356
8.1 Half-value layer energy measurements .................. 357
8.2 Cargo and vehicle screening standards ................. 359
8.3 Digital data standardization .......................... 364
9 Summary .................................................... 365
References ................................................. 367
Chapter 8 Industrial Use of Synchrotron Radiation: Love at
Second Sight .................................................. 371
Josef Hormes and Jeffrey Warner
1 Introduction ............................................... 371
2 Synchrotron Radiation: History and Properties .............. 374
3 SR-based Techniques for Industrial Applications ............ 377
4 Synchrotron Radiation for Quality Control and the Control
of Regulatory Requirements ................................. 380
4.1 Quality control ....................................... 380
4.2 Control of regulatory requirements .................... 383
4.2.1 Workplace aerosols ............................. 384
4.2.2 Tailings management ............................ 385
5 Synchrotron Radiation for Production ....................... 387
5.1 X-ray lithography for the fabrication of
microelectronic devices ............................... 387
5.2 Deep etch X-ray lithography and microfabrication ...... 388
6 Synchrotron Radiation for Research and Development ......... 390
6.1 Biotechnology, pharmaceuticals, and cosmetics ......... 391
6.1.1 Cosmetics and the human hair ................... 392
6.1.2 Metals containing drugs ........................ 393
6.1.3 Protein crystallography ........................ 395
6.2 Automotive ............................................ 399
6.2.1 Automotive catalysts for emission control ...... 400
6.2.2 Rubber research ................................ 402
6.3 Mining ................................................ 404
7 Concluding Remarks ......................................... 407
References ................................................. 408
Index ......................................................... 413
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