Foreword by Amar К. Mohanty ................................... xix
Preface ....................................................... xxi
List of Contributors ........................................ xxiii
1 Engineering Applications of Bioplastics and Biocomposites
- An Overview ................................................ 1
Srikanth Pilla
1.1 Introduction ............................................ 1
1.1.1 Bioplastics ...................................... 2
1.1.2 Biocomposites .................................... 2
1.2 Engineering Applications of Bioplastics and
Biocomposites ........................................... 3
1.2.1 Processing of Bioplastics and Biocomposites ...... 4
1.2.2 Packaging Applications of Bioplastics and
Biocomposites .................................... 6
1.2.3 Civil Engineering Applications of Bioplastics
and Biocomposites ................................ 7
1.2.4 Biomedical Applications of Bioplastics and
Biocomposites .................................... 9
1.2.5 Automotive Applications of Bioplastics and
Biocomposites ................................... 11
1.2.6 General Engineering Applications of
Bioplastics and Biocomposites ................... 12
1.3 Conclusions ............................................ 13
References .................................................. 14
Part 1: Processing of Bioplastics and Biocomposites
2 The Handling of Various Forms of Dry Ingredients
in Bioplastics Manufacturing and Processing Applications .... 19
Andy Kovats
2.1 Introduction ........................................... 19
2.2 Ingredient Properties Affecting Feedrates and Dry
Ingredients Handling ................................... 20
2.2.1 Name ............................................ 20
2.2.2 Bulk Density .................................... 20
2.2.3 Compressibility ................................. 21
2.2.4 Particle Form ................................... 21
2.2.5 Particle Size ................................... 21
2.2.6 Angle of Repose ................................. 21
2.2.7 Angle of Slide .................................. 21
2.2.8 Packing and Compaction .......................... 22
2.2.9 Moisture Content ................................ 22
2.3 Storage Hoppers and Ingredient Activation .............. 22
2.3.1 Vibration ....................................... 22
2.3.2 Internal Stirring Agitation ..................... 22
2.3.3 Concentric Screw Agitation ...................... 24
2.3.4 External Agitation (Flexible Hopper) ............ 24
2.4 Volumetric Feeders ..................................... 26
2.4.1 Single Screw Feeders - Sizing and Feed Rate
Calculation ..................................... 27
2.4.2 Twin Screw Feeders .............................. 30
2.5 Vibrating Tray Feeders ................................. 31
2.6 Belt Feeders ........................................... 32
2.7 Loss-In-Weight Feeders ................................. 34
2.7.1 Scale ........................................... 34
2.7.2 Feed Device ..................................... 34
2.7.3 Weigh Hopper .................................... 36
2.7.4 Feeder Controller ............................... 36
2.7.5 Refill Device ................................... 36
2.7.6 Principle of Operation-Continuous Feeding
from a Loss-In Weight Feeder .................... 36
2.7.7 Loss-In-Weight Feeding Helpful Comments ......... 37
2.8 Special Feeders for BioPlastics Ingredients ............ 39
2.8.1 Bio Ingredients-Typical Physical
Characteristics ................................. 39
2.8.2 The Physical Characteristics Aggravate
Controlled Rate Feeding ......................... 39
2.8.3 Fibers Need to be Tested in Feeders to
Determine How They Can Be Fed ................... 40
2.8.4 Feeder Control and Checking the Feed Rate ....... 41
2.8.5 Ingredient Storage and Keeping the Feeder Full .. 41
2.9 Conclusions ............................................ 42
3 Modeling the Processing of Natural Fiber Composites Made
Using Liquid Composite Molding .............................. 43
Reza Masoodi and Krishna M. Pillai
3.1 Introduction to Liquid Composite Molding (LCM)
Processes .............................................. 43
3.2 Introduction to the Use of Bio-fibers and Bio-resins
in Polymer Composites .................................. 46
3.3 Physics for Modeling Mold-filling in LCM Processes ..... 48
3.3.1 Modeling Single-phase Fluid Flow in Porous
Media ........................................... 49
3.3.2 Modeling LCM Mold Filling in Synthetic Fiber
Mats ............................................ 50
3.3.3 Modeling LCM Mold Filling in Natural Fiber
Mats ............................................ 51
3.3.4 Constant Inlet-Pressure Injection Solution ...... 60
3.3.5 Constant Flow-rate Injection Solution ........... 64
3.4 Numerical Simulation ................................... 68
3.4.1 Mold Filling Simulation in Non-swelling Fiber
Mats ............................................ 68
3.4.2 Recent Developments in LCM Mold Filling
Simulation in the Swelling Natural-fiber Mats ... 68
3.5 Summary and Conclusions ................................ 69
References .................................................. 69
Part 2: Packaging Applications
4 Bioplastics Based Nanocomposites for Packaging
Applications ................................................ 77
J. Soulestin, К. Prashantha, M.F. Lacrampe and P. Krazvczak
4.1 Introduction ........................................... 77
4.2 Definitions and Classification ......................... 79
4.3 Biopolymers Based Packaging Materials .................. 79
4.3.1 Poly Lactic Acid (PLA) .......................... 79
4.3.2 Starch Based Materials .......................... 80
4.3.3 Poly Hydroxyalkanoates (PHA) .................... 81
4.3.4 Proteins ........................................ 82
4.4 Structure of Bio-nanocomposites ........................ 83
4.4.1 Bio-nanocomposites for Packaging Applications ... 83
4.4.2 Structure of Nanocomposites Based on Natural
Nanofillers ..................................... 84
4.5 Properties of Bio-nanocomposites ....................... 88
4.5.1 PLA Based Bio-nanocomposites .................... 89
4.5.2 Starch Based Nanocomposites ..................... 95
4.5.3 PHA Based Bio-Nanocomposites ................... 109
4.5.4 Proteins Based Nanocomposites .................. 114
4.6 Conclusion ............................................ 114
References ................................................. 115
5 Biobased Materials in Food Packaging Applications .......... 121
M.N. Satheesh Kumar, Z. Yaakob and Siddaramaiah
5.1 Introduction .......................................... 121
5.2 Biobased Packaging Materials .......................... 123
5.2.1 Polymers Produced from Biomass ................. 125
5.2.2 Polymers from Bio-derived Monomers ............. 128
5.2.3 Polymers Produced from Micro-organisms ......... 129
5.3 Properties of Packaging Materials ..................... 131
5.3.1 Gas Barrier Properties ......................... 133
5.3.2 Moisture Barrier Properties .................... 138
5.3.3 Mechanical and Thermal Properties .............. 139
5.3.4 Biodegradability ............................... 141
5.4 Packaging Products from Biobased Materials ............ 141
5.4.1 Blown Films .................................... 142
5.4.2 Foamed Products ................................ 143
5.4.3 Thermoformed Containers ........................ 145
5.4.4 Adhesives ...................................... 145
5.4.5 Coated Paper ................................... 146
5.5 Food Applications ..................................... 148
5.6 Nanotechnology ........................................ 152
5.7 Conclusions ........................................... 154
Acknowledgements ...................................... 154
References ............................................ 155
6 Polylactic Acid (PLA) Foams for Packaging Applications ..... 161
Kate Parker, Jean-Philippe Garancher, Samir Shah,
Stephanie Weal and Alan Fernyhough
6.1 Introduction .......................................... 161
6.2 Polylactic Acid (PLA) Foam Overview ................... 162
6.2.1 Extruded Foam .................................. 162
6.2.2 Particle (Bead) Foam ........................... 164
6.2.3 "Sheet" Foam ................................... 168
6.3 Foam Properties ....................................... 168
6.3.1 Thermal Insulation ............................. 169
6.3.2 Mechanical Properties .......................... 169
6.3.3 Heat Deflection Temperature .................... 171
6.4 Conclusions ........................................... 172
References 173
7 Polyvinyl Modified Guar-gum Bioplastics for Packaging
Applications ............................................... 177
Hisatoshi Kobayashi and Dohiko Terada
7.1 Introduction .......................................... 177
7.2 Structure and Physical Properties of Guar Gum ......... 178
7.3 Modification of Guar Gum .............................. 180
7.3.1 Derivatization of Functional Groups ............ 180
7.3.2 PVS Modified Guar Gum .......................... 181
7.4 Characterization ...................................... 184
7.5 Conclusions and Future Challenges ..................... 186
Acknowledgements ...................................... 186
References ............................................ 187
8 Starch Based Composites for Packaging Applications ......... 189
К.M. Gupta
8.1 Introduction .......................................... 189
8.1.1 Starch: History, Characteristics and
Structure ...................................... 190
8.1.2 Different Sources of Starch and Modified
Starches ....................................... 192
8.1.3 Processing of Starch before Using as Matrix
in Composite ................................... 193
8.1.4 Improving the Properties of Starch ............. 194
8.2 Composite Materials ................................... 195
8.2.1 Advantages and Limitations of Composites ....... 195
8.2.2 Classification of Starch-Based Biocomposites ... 196
8.2.3 Particulate Biocomposites ...................... 198
8.2.4 Flake Biocomposites ............................ 198
8.2.5 Hybrid Biocomposites ........................... 198
8.2.6 Sandwich Biocomposites ......................... 199
8.3 Biopolymers/Biodegradable Polymers for use as Matrix
of the Composite ...................................... 200
8.3.1 Important Bio-Polymers ......................... 201
8.3.2 Biodegradable Polymers from Starch and
Cellulose ...................................... 201
8.3.3 Biodegradable Thermoplastic Polymer:
Polylactic Acid (PLA) .......................... 202
8.4 Starch as a Source of Bio-Polymer (Agro-Polymer) ...... 203
8.4.1 Aliphatic Polyester-Grafted Starch ............. 207
8.5 Fibers ................................................ 208
8.5.1 Natural Fibers ................................. 208
8.6 Mechanics of Fiber Composite Laminates ................ 212
8.6.1 Rule of Mixture for Unidirectional
Biocomposites Lamina ........................... 212
8.6.2 Generalized Hooke's Law and Elastic Constants .. 216
8.7 Introduction to Packaging and its Functions ........... 216
8.7.1 Characteristics of a Good Packaging Material ... 217
8.7.2 Vivid Kinds of Packaging Materials and their
Applications ................................... 217
8.7.3 Necessity of Biodegradable Packaging in Food
Industry ....................................... 219
8.8 Starch Based Packaging Materials ...................... 219
8.8.1 Bio-degradable Packaging from Agricultural
Feed Stocks .................................... 220
8.9 Flexible, Active and Passive, and Intelligent
Packagings ............................................ 221
8.9.1 Necessity of Active and Intelligent Packaging .. 222
8.10 Testing Standards/Norms for Packaging ................. 222
8.11 Recent Advances in Starch Based Composites for
Packaging Applications ................................ 226
8.12 Plasticized Starch and Fiber Reinforced Composites
for Packaging Applications ............................ 226
8.12.1 Plasticized Wheat Starch (PWS) and Cellulose
Fibers Composites for Packaging Applications .. 226
8.12.2 Biodegradable Packing Materials based on
Waste Collagen Hydrolysate Cured with
Dialdehyde Starch ............................. 227
8.12.3 Novel Starch Thermoplastic/Bioglass®
Composite ...................................... 228
8.12.4 Bio-Based Polymer Composites Using Poly-
Lactic Acid ................................... 229
8.12.5 Protein-Starch Based Plastic Produced by
Extrusion and Injection Molding ............... 229
8.12.6 Mechanical Properties of Starch Modified by
Ophiostoma SPP for Food Packaging Industry .... 230
8.12.7 Functional Properties of Extruded Starch
Acetate Blends ................................ 231
8.12.8 Thermoplastic Starch and Bacterial Cellulose
Based Biocomposite ............................ 231
8.12.9 Starch/Rubber Composites ...................... 232
8.12.10 Fiber-Reinforced PLA Composites ............... 232
8.12.11 Biodegradation of Starch and Polulactic
Acid-Based Materials .......................... 233
8.12.12 Bacterial Cellulose Fiber-Reinforced Starch
Biocomposites ................................. 233
8.12.13 Starch-based Completely Biodegradable
Polymer Materials ............................. 234
8.12.14 Maleated-Polycaprolactone/Starch Composite .... 235
8.13 Starch Based Nanocomposites for Packaging
Applications .......................................... 235
8.13.1 Biodegradable Starch-based Nano-clay
Composites .................................... 235
8.13.2 MMT-Filled Potato Starch Based
Nanocomposites ................................ 236
8.13.3 Sweet Potato Starch/OMMT Nanocomposite for
Packaging Application ......................... 236
8.13.4 Biocomposites from Wheat Straw Nanofibers ..... 237
8.13.5 Cellulose Nanocomposites with Starch Matrix ... 238
8.14 Starch Foam, Film, and Coated Composites for
Packaging Applications ................................ 238
8.14.1 Blended Composite Film of Chitosan and Starch . 238
8.14.2 PHB Matrix with Potato Starch and Thermo-cell
Filled Biocompositess for Films and Coatings .. 239
8.14.3 Jute and Flax-Reinforced Starch Based
Composite Foams ............................... 240
8.14.4 Egg Albumen-Cassava Starch Composite Films
Containing Sunflower-Oil Droplets ............. 240
8.14.5 Starch Based Loose-Fill Packaging Foams ....... 241
8.14.6 Chemically Modified Starch (RS4)/PVA Blend
Films ......................................... 241
8.14.7 Starch/Polycaprolactone Films ................. 242
8.15 Effects of Various Parameters on Behavior of
Packaging Purpose Biocomposites ....................... 242
8.15.1 Influence of Fibers on Mechanical Properties
of Cassava Starch Foam ........................ 242
8.15.2 Water Absorption Behavior of Oil Palm Fiber-
Low Density Polyethylene Packaging Purpose
Composites .................................... 244
8.15.3 Hygroscopic Effect on PHB Matrix with Potato
Starch Biocomposites for Food Packaging ....... 244
8.15.4 Effect of Degradation and Mineralization of
Starch in Different Media ..................... 246
8.15.5 Effect of Blending of Chitosan and Starch ..... 246
8.16 Characterization of Biocomposites ..................... 247
8.16.1 Characterization of Starch/OMMT
Nanocomposites for Packaging Applications ..... 248
8.16.2 Characterization of Blend Film of Chitosan
Starch ........................................ 251
8.16.3 Morphological and Thermomechanical
Characterization of Thermoplastic Starch/
Monomorillonate Nanocomposites ................ 253
8.17 Composite Manufacturing Methods ....................... 254
8.17.1 Prepreg Lay-up Process ........................ 255
8.17.2 Wet Lay-up (or Hand Lay-up) Process ........... 255
8.17.3 Thermoplastic Pultrusion Process .............. 255
8.17.4 Starch Wet Milling Process .................... 256
8.17.5 Comparison of Various Manufacturing Processes . 256
8.18 Futuristic Research Outlook ........................... 259
8.19 Glossary of Terminology ............................... 259
Acknowledgements ...................................... 261
References ............................................ 262
Part 3: Civil Engineering Applications
9 Vegetable Oil Based Rigid Foam Composites .................. 269
Venkata Chevali, Michael Fuqua and Chad A. Ulven
9.1 Rigid Foam Composites ................................. 269
9.2 Biofoams .............................................. 270
9.2.1 Reactant Chemistry ............................. 272
9.2.2 Environmental Impact ........................... 274
9.3 Production Methods .................................... 275
9.3.1 Mold Casting ................................... 275
9.3.2 Reaction Injection Molding ..................... 276
9.3.3 Slabstock Molding .............................. 276
9.4 Reinforcement Effects ................................. 277
9.4.1 Short Fiber/Fillers ............................ 277
9.4.2 Long Fiber ..................................... 279
9.5 Applications/Case Study ............................... 280
9.5.1 Potential Industry Utilization ................. 280
9.5.2 Mass Transit Application Case Study ............ 280
References ............................................ 282
10 Sustainable Biocomposites Based for Construction
Applications ............................................... 285
Hazizan Md Akil and Adlan Akram Mohamad Mazuki
10.1 Introduction .......................................... 285
10.1.1 Polymer Matrix Composites (PMC's) ............. 285
10.2 Problem Statement ..................................... 286
10.2.1 Minimum Environmental Impact ................... 286
10.2.2 Water and Humidity Issues ...................... 286
10.2.3 Processing of Fiber Reinforced Polymer
Composites (FRP) ............................... 287
10.3 Case study: Fabrication, Characterization and
Properties of Pultruded Kenaf Reinforced Composites ... 288
10.3.1 Raw Materials .................................. 288
10.3.2 Fiber Chemical Treatment ....................... 288
10.3.3 Preparation of Pultruded Composites ............ 289
10.3.4 Testings ....................................... 289
10.4 Result and Discussions ................................ 291
10.4.1 Single Kenaf Fiber ............................. 291
10.4.2 Pultruded Composites ........................... 295
10.4.3 Degradation Test
11 Starch as a Biopolymer in Construction and Civil
Engineering ................................................ 317
Chandan Datta
11.1 Introduction .......................................... 317
11.1.1 Chemicals used in Concrete ..................... 320
11.2 Starch as a Biopolymer ................................ 320
11.2.1 Thermoplastic Starch Products .................. 326
11.2.2 Starch Synthetic Aliphatic Polyester Blends .... 327
11.2.3 Starch and PBS/PBSA Polyester Blends ........... 328
11.3 Starch-plastic Composite Resins and Profiles made by
Extrusion ............................................. 328
11.4 Construction Industry - Starch and its Derivatives
as Construction Material ............................. 329
11.5 Setting Behavior ...................................... 333
11.6 Rheological Measurement of Cements .................... 334
11.6.1 Other Specific Applications .................... 334
11.6.2 Plasters Acoustic Construction Panel Starch
Ether .......................................... 335
Part 4: Biomedical Applications
12 Cellulose Based Green Bioplastics for Biomedical
Engineering ................................................ 347
A.K. Mishra and S.B. Mishra
12.1 Green Bio plastics .................................... 347
12.2 Biomedical Engineering ................................ 348
12.3 Cellulose ............................................. 349
12.4 Cellulose Based Bioplastics for Biomedical
Engineering ........................................... 350
12.4.1 Tissue and Neural Engineering .................. 350
12.4.2 Pharmaceutical Engineering ..................... 352
12.4.3 Implants ....................................... 354
12.5 Concluding Remarks .................................... 355
References ................................................. 355
13 Chitin and Chitosan Polymer Nanofibrous Membranes and
Their Biological Applications .............................. 357
Ahsanulhaq Qurashi
13.1 Introduction .......................................... 357
13.2 Shape of Polymer Nanostructures ....................... 358
13.3 Application of Chitosan Nanofibers .................... 362
13.3.1 Lipase Immobilization .......................... 362
13.3.2 Antibacterial Activities of Quarternay
Chitosan Nanofibers ............................ 362
13.3.3 Wound Dressing ................................. 362
13.3.4 Cellular Compatibility ......................... 364
13.3.5 Bone Tissue Engineering ........................ 365
13.3.6 Skin Regeneration .............................. 366
13.3.7 Liver Functioning .............................. 367
13.4 Conclusion ............................................ 368
References ............................................ 368
Part 5: Automotive Applications
14 Biobased and Biodegradable PHBV-Based Polymer Blends and
Biocomposites: Properties and Applications ................. 373
Alireza Javadi, Srikanth Pilla, Shaoqin Gong and Lih-
Sheng Turng
14.1 Introduction .......................................... 374
14.2 Synthesis of PHBV ..................................... 376
14.3 Microcellular Injection Molding ....................... 377
14.4 Thermal Properties .................................... 378
14.5 Thermal Degradation Properties ........................ 380
14.6 Mechanical Properties ................................. 383
14.7 Viscoelastic Properties ............................... 386
14.8 Biocompatibility ...................................... 390
14.9 Biodegradability ...................................... 390
14.10 Applications ......................................... 392
14.11 Conclusion ........................................... 393
Acknowledgements ........................................... 393
References ................................................. 393
15 Bioplastics and vegetal Fiber Reinforced Bioplastics
for Automotive Applications ................................ 397
Daniela Rusu, Séverine A.E. Boyer, Marie-France Lacrampe
and Patricia Krawczak
15.1 Introduction .......................................... 397
15.1.1 Plastics and Automotive Applications ........... 397
15.1.2 Definitions of Bioplastics and Biocomposites ... 399
15.2 Bioplastics for Automotive Applications ............... 400
15.2.1 Bio-based Polyamides (PAs) and Copolyamides ... 403
15.2.3 Bio-based Polyesters and Copolyesters - other
than PLA ....................................... 422
15.2.4 Thermoplastic Starch (TPS) and its Non-
biodegradable Blends ........................... 424
15.2.5 Bio-based Polyolefins: BioPE and BioPP ......... 425
15.2.6 Bio-based Polyurethanes (PURs) ................. 426
15.2.7 Bio-based Thermosetting Resins - Other than
Thermosetting Polyurethanes .................... 428
15.3 Biocomposites Based on Bioplastics for Automotive
Applications .......................................... 431
15.4 Specific Issues Concerning Processing and Recycling ... 438
15.4.1 Processing ..................................... 438
15.4.1.1 Bioplastics .................................. 438
15.4.1.2 Biocomposites ................................ 438
15.4.2 Recycling ...................................... 439
15.5 General Conclusions ................................... 441
References ............................................ 441
Part 6: General Engineering Applications
16 Cellulose Nanofibers Reinforced Bioplastics and Their
Applications ............................................... 453
Susheel Kalia, B.S. Kaith and Shalu Vashistha
16.1 Introduction .......................................... 453
16.2 Cellulose Fibers ...................................... 454
16.2.1 Sources and Processing Methods ................. 454
16.2.2 Chemical Composition ........................... 455
16.2.3 Properties ..................................... 455
16.3 Bioplastics: Synthesis, Properties and Applications ... 456
16.4 Cellulose Nanofibers .................................. 458
16.4.1 Methods of Cellulose Nanofibers Production ..... 459
16.4.2 Characterization of Cellulose Nanofibers ....... 461
16.4.3 Applications of Cellulose Nanofibers ........... 462
16.5 Cellulose Nanofibers Reinforced Bioplastics ........... 465
16.5.1 Synthesis and Properties of Nanocomposites ..... 465
16.5.2 Applications of Nanocomposites ................. 467
16.6 Conclusion ............................................ 467
References ................................................. 468
17 Nanocomposites Based on Starch and Fibers of Natural
Origin ..................................................... 471
Kestur Gundappa Satyanarayana, Fernando Wypych, Marco
Aurelio Woehl, Luiz Pereira Ramos and Rafael Marangoni
17.1 Introduction .......................................... 471
17.1.1 Historical Developments ........................ 471
17.1.2 Nanocomposites ................................. 474
17.1.3 Biopolymers .................................... 475
17.1.4 Market, Perspectives, Potentials of and
Opportunities in Bionanocomposites ............. 476
17.2 Biomaterials .......................................... 477
17.2.1 Cellulose ...................................... 477
17.2.2 Bio Matrix Materials ........................... 478
17.2.3 Cellulose Based Nano-bioreinforcements/
Fillers ........................................ 483
17.3 Bionanocomposites Based on Plasticized Starch
Reinforced with Plant Based Cellulose/Bacterial
Cellulose Nanofibers .................................. 493
17.3.1 Processing Aspects ............................ 493
17.3.2 Properties of Bionanocomposites ................ 496
17.4 Applications and Products of Bionanocomposites ........ 503
17.5 Concluding Remarks .................................... 503
Acknowledgements ........................................... 504
References ................................................. 505
18 Biogenic Precursors for Polyphenol, Polyester and
Polyurethane Resins ........................................ 511
A.H. Harlin
18.1 Composite Materials ................................... 511
18.1.1 Reaction Polymers .............................. 511
18.1.2 Hybrid Materials and Composites ................ 512
18.2 Biogenic Raw Materials ................................ 515
18.2.1 Sugar Platform ................................. 515
18.2.2 Lipid Platform ................................. 515
18.2.3 Bio-based Aromates ............................. 516
18.2.4 Biogenic Olefin Platform ....................... 516
18.3 Glyserols ............................................. 519
18.3.1 Glyserol ....................................... 519
18.3.2 Epichlorohydrin ................................ 519
18.3.3 Glyceryl Carbonate ............................. 519
18.3.4 Glycerol Formal ................................ 520
18.4 Acid Platform ......................................... 520
18.4.1 Acrolein ....................................... 520
18.4.2 Hydroxy Acids .................................. 520
18.4.3 Valerolactones ................................. 522
18.4.4 Acrylic Acid ................................... 522
18.4.5 Succinic Acid .................................. 522
18.5 Diols ................................................. 523
18.5.1 Ethylene Glycol ................................ 523
18.5.2 Propylene Glycol ............................... 523
18.5.3 1,2-Propylene Glycol ........................... 525
18.5.4 1,4-Butanediol (ВЕЮ) ........................... 525
18.6 Higher Diols .......................................... 525
18.6.1 1,5-Pentadiol .................................. 525
18.6.2 Methyl-l,4-butanediol .......................... 526
18.6.3 1,6-Hexanediol ................................. 526
18.6.4 Isosorbide ..................................... 526
18.7 Polyols ............................................... 526
18.7.1 Erythritol ..................................... 526
18.7.2 Polyols ........................................ 527
18.7.3 Polyglyserols .................................. 527
18.7.4 Polyol Modification ............................ 527
18.8 Plastizers ............................................ 528
18.8.1 Terpene Phenolic Resin ......................... 528
18.8.2 Sterols ........................................ 528
18.8.3 Rosin Acids .................................... 528
18.8.4 Epoxidized Plant Oils .......................... 529
18.9 Furans ................................................ 529
18.9.1 2,5-Furandicarboxylic Acid ..................... 531
18.9.2 2,5-Bis(hydroxymethyl)furan .................... 531
18.9.3 Furfyryl Alcohol ............................... 531
18.9.4 Furfural Resins ................................ 531
18.10 Terpenes ............................................. 532
18.10.1 Camphene....................................... 533
18.10.2 Limonene ...................................... 533
18.10.3 Limonene Oxide ................................ 534
18.10.4 Terpinolene ................................... 534
18.10.5 p-Cymene ...................................... 534
18.10.6 Benzoazines ................................... 535
18.11 Phenols .............................................. 535
18.11.1 Novolac-type Phenolic Resins .................. 535
18.11.2 Tannins ....................................... 539
18.11.3 Tannic Acid ................................... 539
18.12 Lignin ............................................... 540
18.12.1 Lignin as Chemical Source ..................... 540
18.12.2 Lignin Pyrolysis .............................. 541
18.12.3 Lignin Cracking ............................... 541
18.12.4 Lignin Oxidation .............................. 542
18.13 Conclusions .......................................... 543
References ................................................. 544
19 Long Biofibers and Engineered Pulps for High Performance
Bioplastics and Biocomposites .............................. 555
Alan Fernyhough and Martin Markotsis
19.1 Introduction to Long Fiber Reinforced Plastics
and Processes ......................................... 555
19.2 Introduction to Biofibers, Bioplastics and
Biocomposites ......................................... 557
19.2.1 Biofibers ...................................... 558
19.2.2 Bioplastics .................................... 560
19.2.3 Biocomposites .................................. 563
19.3 Natural Fiber Mat & Wood Fiber Sheet Moulding for
Composites ............................................ 564
19.4 Natural Fiber & Wood Fiber Injection Moulding
Compounds ............................................. 568
Acknowledgements ........................................... 575
References ................................................. 575
Index ......................................................... 581
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