Preface ........................................................ IV
About the Authors ............................................ XVII
1 Definition of Hazardous Waste ................................ 1
1.1 The Environmental Protection Agency's Regulatory
Definition .............................................. 1
1.1.1 Characteristic Hazardous Waste ................... 2
1.1.2 Listed Hazardous Waste ........................... 3
1.1.3 Excluded Hazardous Waste ......................... 3
1.2 Regulatory History of Hazardous Waste in the US ......... 4
1.2.1 The Resource Conservation and Recovery Act and
Amendments ....................................... 4
1.2.2 Superfund Legislation ............................ 5
1.2.3 Other Hazardous Waste Regulations ................ 7
1.3 Categories and Sources of Hazardous Waste ............... 7
1.3.1 Nuclear Waste .................................... 7
1.3.2 Industrial Waste ................................. 8
1.3.3 'Universal' Waste ................................ 8
1.3.4 Medical Waste .................................... 8
1.3.5 Construction Waste ............................... 9
1.3.6 Electronic Waste ................................. 9
References ................................................... 9
2 The Biggest Generators of Hazardous Waste in the US ......... 11
2.1 Federal Criteria for Regulation of Waste Generators .... 11
2.2 National Biennial RCRA Hazardous Waste Reports ......... 13
2.3 The Chemical Industry .................................. 15
2.4 Local Effects of Hazardous Waste Production: Case
Studies of the Top 3 Hazardous Waste Generators and
the Communities that House Them ........................ 16
2.4.1 The Dow Chemical Company, Plaquemine Facility,
Plaquemine, Louisiana ........................... 16
2.4.2 Solutia Inc. and Alvin, Texas ................... 17
2.4.3 Occidental Chemical Corporation and Hahnville,
Louisiana ....................................... 18
2.5 The United States Military and Other Federal
Facilities ............................................. 18
2.5.1 The Department of Defense as a Major
Contributor ..................................... 18
2.5.2 The Department of the Interior .................. 19
2.5.3 The Department of Energy ........................ 19
2.6 Unregulated Household Hazardous Waste ................. 20
References .................................................. 20
3 The Chemical Industry ....................................... 23
3.1 The Dow Chemical Company ............................... 23
3.1.1 Superfund Sites ................................. 24
3.1.2 Disaster in Bhopal, India ....................... 25
3.1.3 Agent Orange Liabilities ........................ 25
3.1.4 Chlorpyrifos .................................... 26
3.2 E.I. DuPont de Nemours and Company ..................... 27
3.2.1 Tetraethyl Lead ................................. 28
3.2.2 Pompton Lakes, New Jersey ....................... 31
3.2.3 Other Recent DuPont Transgressions: Teflon,
Dioxins, and Safety Violations .................. 31
3.3 Monsanto Company ....................................... 32
3.3.1 Monsanto's Toxic PCB Legacy at Sauget,
Illinois ........................................ 33
3.3.2 Monsanto's (Solutia Inc.) Plant at Anniston,
Alabama ......................................... 34
3.4 Chemical Industry Hazardous Wastes ..................... 42
Acknowledgment .............................................. 43
References .................................................. 43
4 The United States Military .................................. 49
4.1 Range and Scope of Military Hazardous Waste ............ 49
4.2 Hazardous Waste from Domestic Manufacturing and Bases .. 50
4.3 Dumping of Munitions in the Ocean ...................... 51
4.3.1 History and Scope of Marine Munitions Disposal
by the US Military .............................. 51
4.3.2 The Effects of Dumping: Past Harms and Future
Threats ......................................... 52
4.4 Improper Disposal of Hazardous Waste in US Military
Operations Abroad ...................................... 54
References .................................................. 55
5 The Petroleum Industry ...................................... 57
5.1 Overview, Emissions and Waste .......................... 57
5.1.1 Overview ........................................ 57
5.1.2 Emissions ....................................... 58
5.1.3 Waste ........................................... 59
5.2 Refinery Workers Studies ............................... 60
5.3 The Baton Rouge Refinery: Cancer Alley ................. 61
5.4 Methyl Tertiary Butyl Ether (MTBE) ..................... 62
5.5 Oil Fields Across America and Damage Done .............. 62
5.5.1 The Santa Maria Oil Sumps ....................... 63
5.5.2 The Santa Barbara Oil Spill of 1969 ............. 63
5.5.3 Exxon Valdez Oil Spill .......................... 64
5.6 Citgo's Spill in Lake Charles and Criminal Charges ..... 65
5.6.1 The Event ....................................... 65
5.6.2 The Damage ...................................... 66
5.6.3 The Consequences ................................ 67
5.7 BP Oil Spill ........................................... 67
5.7.1 The Incident .................................... 67
5.7.2 Oil Dispersants ................................. 68
Acknowledgment .............................................. 69
References .................................................. 69
6 Coal-Fired Power Plants ..................................... 73
6.1 Overview ............................................... 73
6.2 Power Production, Emissions, and Waste ................. 74
6.2.1 Production ...................................... 74
6.2.2 Emissions ....................................... 74
6.2.3 Waste ........................................... 75
6.3 Environmental Health Impacts ........................... 75
6.3.1 Acid Deposition ................................. 75
6.3.2 Mercury ......................................... 76
6.3.3 Climate Change .................................. 77
6.4 Lawsuits and Regulations ............................... 77
6.4.1 Violation of the Clean Air Act (CAA) ............ 77
6.4.2 Current Efforts ................................. 78
6.5 Control Technologies and Alternatives .................. 79
References .................................................. 79
7 Iron, Steel, and Coke ....................................... 83
7.1 Introduction ........................................... 83
7.2 Steel Production ....................................... 84
7.2.1 Cokemaking ...................................... 84
7.2.2 Ironmaking ...................................... 85
7.2.3 Steelmaking ..................................... 86
7.3 Human Health Impacts ................................... 87
7.3.1 Air Emissions ................................... 87
7.3.2 Wastewater ...................................... 87
7.3.3 Solid Wastes .................................... 88
7.4 Standards and Regulations .............................. 88
7.4.1 EPA NESHAP Standard ............................. 88
7.4.2 OSHA Coke Oven Standard ......................... 89
7.4.3 EPA Clean Water Act ............................. 89
7.4.4 Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) ... 89
7.5 Alabama By-Products Corp. (ABC) Coke Case Study ........ 91
7.5.1 Background and Overview ......................... 91
7.5.2 Pollution and Emissions ......................... 91
7.5.3 Reported Data ................................... 92
7.5.4 Health Cases .................................... 92
7.6 Alternatives to Conventional Technology ................ 92
References .................................................. 93
8 The Wood Treatment Industry ................................. 95
8.1 Overview ............................................... 95
8.2 Chemicals Involved in the Wood Preserving Industry ..... 96
8.2.1 Chemical Emission Sources in the Wood
Preserving Industry ............................. 96
8.2.2 Chemicals Emitted in the Wood Preserving
Industry ........................................ 96
8.2.3 Overview of Select Chemicals .................... 96
8.3 Associated Hazardous Waste Laws and Regulations ........ 99
8.4 Case Study - Koppers Tie Treating Facility,
Somerville, TX ......................................... 99
8.5 Hazardous Waste Mitigation — Best Management
Practices and Technologies in the Wood Preservation
Industry .............................................. 100
References ................................................. 101
9 The Paper and Pulp Industry ................................ 103
9.1 Overview .............................................. 103
9.2 Chemicals Involved in the Pulp and Paper Industry ..... 104
9.2.1 Chemical Emission Sources in the Pulp and
Paper Industry ................................. 104
9.2.2 Chemicals Emitted in the Pulp and Paper
Industry ....................................... 104
9.2.3 Overview of Select Chemicals ................... 105
9.3 Associated Hazardous Waste Laws and Regulations ....... 107
9.4 Case Study — International Paper Facility,
Prattville, AL ........................................ 108
9.5 Hazardous Waste Mitigation — General Guidance on
Pollution Prevention (P2) and Cleaner Production in
the Pulp and Paper Industry ........................... 109
References ................................................. 113
10 Nuclear Waste and Tritium Releases ......................... 115
10.1 Introduction .......................................... 115
10.2 Types and Sources of Nuclear Waste .................... 116
10.2.1 Radioactive Elements ........................... 116
10.2.2 Low-Level Waste ................................ 117
10.2.3 High-Level Waste ............................... 117
10.2.4 Mill Tailings .................................. 118
10.3 Management and Storage ................................ 118
10.3.1 Our Nuclear Burden ............................. 118
10.3.2 How Nuclear Waste is Stored Today .............. 119
10.3.3 The Yucca Mountain Question .................... 120
10.4 The Hazards of Nuclear Waste .......................... 120
10.4.1 Human Health Hazard ............................ 120
10.4.2 Case Studies ................................... 121
10.4.3 Rocky Flats Plant .............................. 121
10.4.4 Vermont Yankee Nuclear Power Plant ............. 122
10.4.5 The Hanford Site ............................... 123
References ................................................. 124
11 Pesticides ................................................. 127
11.1 Current Regulatory Framework .......................... 128
11.2 Case Studies of Select Pesticides ..................... 129
11.2.1 DDT ............................................ 129
11.2.2 Agent Orange ................................... 130
11.2.3 Chloropicrin ................................... 131
11.2.4 Endosulfan ..................................... 131
11.2.5 Propargite ..................................... 132
11.2.6 Malathion ...................................... 132
11.3 Worker Exposure to Pesticides ......................... 132
11.3.1 DBCP Worker Case Studies ....................... 132
11.3.2 California Cyfluthrin Case Study ............... 133
11.3.3 Farm Worker Children ........................... 133
11.3.4 Protecting Worker Safety ....................... 134
11.4 Pesticides in Groundwater, Surface Water, and
Drinking Water ........................................ 135
11.4.1 Atrazine ....................................... 135
11.4.2 Alachlor ....................................... 139
11.4.3 Metolachlor .................................... 140
11.4.4 1,2,3-Trichloropropane (TCP) ................... 142
11.4.5 l,2-Dibromo-3-chloropropane(DBCP) .............. 143
11.4.6 Removal Technologies ........................... 144
11.5 Conclusion ............................................ 145
Acknowledgments ............................................ 145
References ................................................. 145
12 Current Practices in Hazardous Waste Treatment and
Disposal ................................................... 155
12.1 Introduction .......................................... 155
12.2 Underground Injection ................................. 156
12.2.1 Problems with Underground Injection ................ 157
12.3 Aqueous Organic Treatment ............................. 158
12.4 Incineration .......................................... 158
12.5 Land Disposal ......................................... 159
12.5.1 Love Canal ..................................... 160
12.5.2 Methods of Land Disposal ....................... 161
12.5.3 Human Health Effects of Land Disposal .......... 164
Acknowledgment ............................................. 166
References ................................................. 166
13 The Export of Hazardous Waste .............................. 169
13.1 Overview, Main Drivers, and Types of Exported Waste ... 169
13.1.1 Overview ....................................... 169
13.1.2 Main Drivers Toward Awareness .................. 170
13.1.3 Types of Waste and Toxic Trade ................. 171
13.2 International Law and the Loophole .................... 173
13.2.1 International Law, Regional Agreements, and
Compliance ..................................... 173
13.2.2 The Loophole: Recycling, Repair, and
Reassembly ..................................... 175
13.3 E-Waste - The New Export Challenge .................... 177
13.3.1 Background of E-Waste Exports .................. 177
13.3.2 Hazards of E-Waste Exports ..................... 178
13.4 Recommendations and Conclusion ........................ 180
Acknowledgment ............................................. 182
References ................................................. 182
14 Introduction to Human Exposure, Toxicology, and Risk
Assessment ................................................. 185
14.1 Exposure Pathways ..................................... 185
14.1.1 Soil, Water, Air, and Biota - Media ............ 186
14.1.2 Inhalation, Ingestion, and Dermal Absorption ... 187
14.2 Quantifying Exposure .................................. 189
14.2.1 Point-of-Contact and Biological Monitoring ..... 189
14.2.2 Exposure Scenarios ............................. 190
14.3 Toxicity Assessment ................................... 192
14.4 Estimating Risks ...................................... 193
14.4.1 Non-Carcinogenic Effects ....................... 193
14.4.2 Carcinogenic Effects ........................... 194
14.5 Risk-Based Regulatory Levels .......................... 195
14.6 Resources for Toxicity Information .................... 195
14.7 Uncertainties in Risk Assessment ...................... 195
References ................................................. 199
15 Bioaccumulation of Dioxins, PCBs, and PAHs ................. 201
15.1 Overview of Persistent, Bioaccumulative, and Toxic
Chemicals ............................................. 202
15.1.1 Bioaccumulation, Bioconcentration, and
Biomagnification ............................... 202
15.1.2 Persistent, Bioaccumulative, and Toxic
Chemicals ...................................... 203
15.1.3 Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) ........... 203
15.2 Dioxins ............................................... 203
15.2.1 Overview ....................................... 203
15.2.2 Sources and Exposure ........................... 204
15.2.3 Health Effects ................................. 204
15.3 Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) ...................... 205
15.3.1 Overview ....................................... 205
15.3.2 Sources and Exposure ........................... 206
15.3.3 Health Effects ................................. 206
15.3.4 Regulation of PCBs ............................. 207
15.4 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) ............... 207
15.4.1 Overview ....................................... 207
15.4.2 Sources and Exposure ........................... 208
15.4.3 Health Effects ................................. 208
15.5 Case Studies ......................................... 209
15.5.1 Bioaccumulation of PCBs ........................ 209
15.5.2 Bioaccumulation of POPs ........................ 209
Acknowledgments ............................................ 210
References ................................................. 210
16 Emerging Contaminants ...................................... 215
16.1 Overview of Chemicals of Emerging Concern ............. 215
16.2 Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products ............ 217
16.3 Surfactants ........................................... 218
16.4 Plasticizers .......................................... 218
16.5 Fire Retardants ....................................... 218
16.6 Biological Emerging Contaminants ...................... 219
16.7 Odor as a Potential Health Issue ...................... 219
16.8 Future Research ....................................... 220
References ................................................. 221
17 Mercury, BPA, and Pesticides in Food ....................... 223
17.1 Mercury ............................................... 224
17.1.1 Mercury in the Environment ..................... 224
17.1.2 Occurrence in Food ............................. 224
17.1.3 Toxicity and Health Effects .................... 225
17.1.4 Regulating Mercury Exposure .................... 226
17.1.5 Limiting Mercury Exposure in the Diet .......... 227
17.2 BisphenolA ............................................ 228
17.2.1 Overview ....................................... 228
17.2.2 Toxicity and Health Effects .................... 228
17.3 Pesticide Residues .................................... 229
17.3.1 Overview ....................................... 229
17.3.2 Monitoring and Surveillance .................... 229
17.3.3 The Dirty Dozen ................................ 231
17.3.4 Exposure and Health Risks ...................... 231
17.4 Dioxins, PCBs, and PAHs ............................... 232
Acknowledgment ............................................. 232
References ................................................. 232
18 Childhood Exposure to Environmental Toxins ................. 237
18.1 What Makes Children Vulnerable ........................ 237
18.2 Breastfeeding and Transfer of Organochlorine
Compounds ............................................. 238
18.3 Children in Agricultural Areas ........................ 239
18.4 The Effects of Air Pollution on Children's
Respiratory Health .................................... 239
18.5 Childhood Cancers and the Link to Environmental
Toxins ................................................ 240
Acknowledgment ............................................. 241
References ................................................. 241
19 Health Care Costs and Corporate Accountability ............. 245
19.1 Corporate Accountability to Medicare and Medicaid
for Health Care Costs ................................. 245
19.1.1 Medicare Secondary Payer Act ................... 245
19.1.2 Recovery Audit Contractor Program .............. 246
19.2 Case Study - US Government Civil Suit Against
Monsanto .............................................. 246
19.2.1 Introduction to the Lawsuit .................... 246
19.2.2 The Complaint .................................. 247
19.2.3 Current Status of the Case ..................... 247
Acknowledgment ............................................. 248
References ................................................. 248
20 Health and Safety Standards ................................ 249
20.1 Occupational Safety and Health Administration ......... 249
20.2 National Institute for Occupational Safety and
Health ................................................ 251
20.3 American Conference for Government Industrial
Hygienists ............................................ 253
20.4 Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry ...... 253
20.5 World Health Organization ............................. 254
20.6 Environmental Protection Agency ....................... 254
20.7 EPA Sector Notebooks .................................. 255
References ................................................. 256
21 The Failures of Regulatory Agencies and Their
Inefficiency in Introducing New Chemicals into Regulation .. 257
21.1 Outdated OSHA Values are not Safe ..................... 257
21.2 Problems with the EPA's IRIS .......................... 258
21.2.1 Overview of the EPA's Integrated Risk
Information System ............................. 258
21.2.2 The Government Accountability Office's Issues
with the EPA's IRIS ............................ 259
21.3 Superfund Liability and Determination of Probable
Responsible Parties ................................... 261
21.4 Inadequacies within Hazardous Waste Legislation ....... 262
21.4.1 Problems with the Toxic Substances Control
Act ............................................ 262
21.4.2 'Sham Recycling' and Problems with the RCRA's
Definition of Solid Waste ...................... 264
References ................................................. 266
22 Strategies for the Future - Waste Reduction and
Recycling, Treatment Technologies, and Green Chemistry ..... 269
22.1 Reduction and Recycling ............................... 269
22.1.1 Source Reduction ............................... 270
22.1.2 Recycling ...................................... 272
22.2 New Treatment Technologies ............................ 273
22.3 Green Chemistry ................................. 275
22.3.1 Overview ....................................... 275
22.3.2 Purpose and Principles ......................... 275
22.3.3 Problems with the Toxic Substances Control
Act of 1976 .................................... 276
22.3.4 Creating More Effective Legislation: Learning
from the European Union and Canada ............. 278
22.3.5 Change is Brewing in the United States: EPA
Transparency and Proposed Legislation .......... 278
22.3.6 Fortifying the Validity of Green Chemistry -
Market Drivers and the Economic Impacts ........ 279
22.3.7 The Effect on Consumers ........................ 280
22.3.8 Conclusion: Green Chemistry is Necessary ............ 281
Acknowledgments ............................................ 282
References ................................................. 282
Appendices
Appendix A: OSHA Permissible Exposure Limits (PEL) ......... 285
Appendix B: OSHA Permissible Exposure Limits (PEL)
Time-Weighted Averages ......................... 297
Appendix C: OSHA Immediately Dangerous to Life and Health
(IDLH) Values .................................. 299
Appendix D: NIOSH Recommended Exposure Limits (REL) ........ 307
Appendix E: NIOSH Immediately Dangerous to Life and
Health (IDLH) Values ........................... 331
Appendix F: ACGIH Threshold Limit Value (TLV) .............. 341
Appendix G: ACGIH Immediately Dangerous to Life and
Health (IDLH) Values ........................... 355
Appendix H: ATSDR Minimal Risk Levels (MRLs) December
2006 ........................................... 365
Appendix I: WHO Air Quality Guidelines ..................... 379
Appendix J: EPA Regional Screening Levels (RSLs) ........... 381
Appendix K: Toxicity and Chemical-Specific Information ..... 407
Appendix L: Industry Chemical Matrix ....................... 433
Index ......................................................... 441
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