1 Introduction .................................................. 1
1.1 Motivation ............................................... 1
1.2 Methodological Framework ................................. 5
1.3 Outline of the Thesis .................................... 6
2 The Effect of Preschool Attendance on Secondary School Track
Choice: Evidence from Siblings ............................... 10
2.1 Introduction ............................................ 10
2.2 Germany's Preschool and School System ................... 13
2.3 Empirical Strategy and Data ............................. 15
2.3.1 Estimation Strategy .............................. 15
2.3.2 Data on Preschool Attendance and Secondary
School Track Choice .............................. 19
2.4 Results ................................................. 24
2.4.1 OLS Results ...................................... 24
2.4.2 Sibling Models ................................... 26
2.4.3 Robustness Checks ................................ 36
2.4.4 Cognitive Skills as Dependent Variable ........... 43
2.5 Conclusion .............................................. 45
3 Age at Preschool Entrance and Noncognitive Skills before
School: An Instrumental Variable Approach .................... 49
3.1 Introduction ............................................ 49
3.2 Germany's Preschool System and the Month of Birth
Instrument .............................................. 53
3.3 Empirical Strategy and Data ............................. 58
3.3.1 Estimation Strategy .............................. 58
3.3.2 Data on Preschool Entrance and Noncognitive
Skills ........................................... 61
3.4 Results ................................................. 67
3.4.1 First Stage Results .............................. 67
3.4.2 Effects of Age at Preschool Entrance on
Noncognitive Skills .............................. 70
3.4.3 Robustness Checks ................................ 75
3.5 Conclusion ............................................. 81
4 Public Child Care and Mothers' Labor Supply: Evidence from
Age Cut-offs ................................................. 86
4.1 Introduction ............................................ 86
4.2 Germany's Child Care System and the Cut-off Rules ....... 90
4.3 Empirical Strategy and Data ............................. 90
4.3.1 Estimation Strategy .............................. 91
4.3.2 Data on Child Care and Mothers' Outcomes ......... 93
4.4 Results ................................................. 98
4.4.1 Reduced form: Eligibility for Child Care and
Mothers' Labor Supply ............................ 98
4.4.2 2SLS: Child Care Attendance and Mothers' Labor
Supply .......................................... 108
4.4.3 Robustness Checks ............................... 117
4.5 Conclusion ............................................. 122
5 Identifying the Incidence of "Grading on a Curve":
A Within-Student Across-Subject Approach .................... 124
5.1 Introduction ........................................... 124
5.2 The German School System and Teacher Grading ........... 127
5.3 Empirical Strategy and Data ............................ 129
5.3.1 Estimation Strategy ............................. 129
5.3.2 Data on German Fourth-Grade Students from
PIRLS ........................................... 132
5.4 Results ................................................ 138
5.4.1 Pooled OLS Models and Correlated Random
Effects Model ................................... 138
5.4.2 First-Differenced Model ......................... 141
5.4.3 Effect Heterogeneity ............................ 145
5.5 The Association Between Relative Grading and
Students' Learning Effort .............................. 149
5.6 Conclusion ............................................. 154
6 Policy Conclusions .......................................... 161
Literature ..................................................... 165
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