List of Abbreviations ......................................... XLI
1 Introduction to Nanotechnology
Bharat Bhushan ............................................... 1
1.1 Nanotechnology - Definition and Examples ................ 1
1.2 Background and Research Expenditures .................... 4
1.3 Lessons from Nature (Biomimetics) ....................... 6
1.4 Applications in Different Fields ........................ 9
1.5 Various Issues ......................................... 10
1.6 Research Training ...................................... 11
1.7 Organization of the Handbook ........................... 11
References .................................................. 12
Part A Nanostructures, Micro-/Nanofabrication and Materials
2 Nanomaterials Synthesis and Applications: Molecule-Based
Devices
Françisco M. Raymo .......................................... 17
2.1 Chemical Approaches to Nanostructured Materials ........ 18
2.2 Molecular Switches and Logic Gates ..................... 22
2.3 Solid State Devices .................................... 30
2.4 Conclusions and Outlook ................................ 42
References .................................................. 43
3 Introduction to Carbon Nanotubes
More Monthioux, Philippe Serp, Emmanuel Flahaut,
Manitra Razafinimanana, Christophe Laurent, Alain
Peigney, Wolfgang Bacsa, Jean-Marc Broto .................... 47
3.1 Structure of Carbon Nanotubes .......................... 48
3.2 Synthesis of Carbon Nanotubes .......................... 53
3.3 Growth Mechanisms of Carbon Nanotubes .................. 70
3.4 Properties of Carbon Nanotubes ......................... 74
3.5 Carbon Nanotube-Based Nano-Objects ..................... 80
3.6 Applications of Carbon Nanotubes ....................... 85
3.7 Toxicity and Environmental Impact of Carbon
Nanotubes .............................................. 99
3.8 Concluding Remarks .................................... 100
References ................................................. 101
4 Nanowires
Mildred S. Dresselhaus, Yu-Ming Lin, Oded Rabin, Marcie
R. Black, Jing Kong, Gene Dresselhaus ...................... 119
4.1 Synthesis ............................................. 121
4.2 Characterization and Physical Properties of
Nanowires ............................................. 130
4.3 Applications .......................................... 152
4.4 Concluding Remarks .................................... 159
References ................................................. 159
5 Template-Based Synthesis of Nanorod or Nanowire Arrays
Huamei (Mary) Shang, Guozhong Cao .......................... 169
5.1 Template-Based Approach ............................... 170
5.2 Electrochemical Deposition ............................ 171
5.3 Electrophoretic Deposition ............................ 175
5.4 Template Filling ...................................... 180
5.5 Converting from Reactive Templates .................... 182
5.6 Summary and Concluding Remarks ........................ 182
References ................................................. 183
6 Templated Self-Assembly of Particles
Tobias Kraus, Heiko Wolf ................................... 187
6.1 The Assembly Process .................................. 189
6.2 Classes of Directed Particle Assembly ................. 194
6.3 Templates ............................................. 202
6.4 Processes and Setups .................................. 205
6.5 Conclusions ........................................... 206
References ................................................. 207
7 Three-Dimensional Nanostructure Fabrication by Focused
Ion Beam Chemical Vapor Deposition
Shinji Matsui .............................................. 211
7.1 Three-Dimensional Nanostructure Fabrication ........... 212
7.2 Nanoelectromechanics .................................. 215
7.3 Nanooptics: Brilliant Blue Observation from a Morpho
Butterfly Scale Quasistructure ........................ 223
7.4 Nanobiology ........................................... 224
7.5 Summary ............................................... 228
References ................................................. 228
8 Introduction to Micro-/Nanofabrication
Babak Ziaie, Antonio Baldi, Massood I. Atashbar ............ 231
8.1 Basic Microfabrication Techniques ..................... 232
8.2 MEMS Fabrication Techniques ........................... 244
8.3 Nanofabrication Techniques ............................ 256
8.4 Summary and Conclusions ............................... 265
References ................................................. 265
9 Nanoimprint Lithography - Patterning of Resists Using
Molding
Helmut Schift, Anders Kristensen ........................... 271
9.1 Emerging Nanopatterning Methods ....................... 273
9.2 Nanoimprint Process ................................... 277
9.3 Tools and Materials for Nanoimprinting ................ 288
9.4 Nanoimprinting Applications ........................... 294
9.5 Conclusions and Outlook ............................... 302
References ................................................. 304
10 Stamping Techniques for Micro- and Nanofabrication
Etienne Menard, John A. Rogers ............................. 313
10.1 High-Resolution Stamps ................................ 314
10.2 Microcontact Printing ................................. 316
10.3 Nanotransfer Printing ................................. 318
10.4 Applications .......................................... 322
10.5 Conclusions ........................................... 329
References ................................................. 330
11 Material Aspects of Micro- and Nanoelectromechanical
Systems
Christian A. Zorman, Mehran Mehregany ...................... 333
11.1 Silicon ............................................... 333
11.2 Germanium-Based Materials ............................. 340
11.3 Metals ................................................ 341
11.4 Harsh-Environment Semiconductors ...................... 343
11.5 GaAs, InP, and Related III-V Materials ................ 349
11.6 Ferroelectric Materials ............................... 350
11.7 Polymer Materials ..................................... 351
11.8 Future Trends ......................................... 352
References ................................................. 353
Part В MEMS/NEMS and BioMEMS/NEMS
12 MEMS/NEMS Devices and Applications
Darrin J. Young, Christian A. Zorman, Mehran Mehregany ..... 359
12.1 MEMS Devices and Applications ......................... 361
12.2 Nanoelectromechanical Systems (NEMS) .................. 380
12.3 Current Challenges and Future Trends .................. 383
References ................................................. 384
13 Next-Generation DNA Hybridization and Self-Assembly
Nanofabrication Devices
Michael J. Heller, Benjamin Sullivan, Dietrich Dehlinger,
Paul Swanson, Dalibor Hodko ................................. 389
13.1 Electronic Microarray Technology ...................... 391
13.2 Electric Field-Assisted Nanofabrication Processes ..... 397
13.3 Conclusions ........................................... 399
References ................................................. 400
14 Single-Walled Carbon Nanotube Sensor Concepts
Cosmin Roman, Thomas Helbling, Christofer Hierold .......... 403
14.1 Design Considerations for SWNT Sensors ................ 404
14.2 Fabrication of SWNTSensors ............................ 412
14.3 Example State-of-the-Art Applications ................. 416
14.4 Concluding Remarks .................................... 421
References ................................................. 421
15 Nanomechanical Cantilever Array Sensors
Hans Peter Lang, Martin Hegner, Christoph Gerber ........... 427
15.1 Technique ............................................. 427
15.2 Cantilever Array Sensors .............................. 429
15.3 Modes of Operation .................................... 430
15.4 Microfabrication ...................................... 434
15.5 Measurement Setup ..................................... 434
15.6 Functionalization Techniques .......................... 438
15.7 Applications .......................................... 439
15.8 Conclusions and Outlook ............................... 445
References ................................................. 446
16 Biological Molecules in Therapeutic Nanodevices
Stephen С. Lee, Bharat Bhushan ............................. 453
16.1 Definitions and Scope ................................. 454
16.2 Assembly Approaches ................................... 461
16.3 Sensing Devices ....................................... 471
16.4 Concluding Remarks: Barriers to Practice .............. 478
References ................................................. 480
17 G-Protein Coupled Receptors:
Progress in Surface Display and Biosensor Technology
Wayne R. Leifert, Tamara H. Cooper, Kelly Bailey ........... 485
17.1 The GPCR:G-Protein Activation Cycle ................... 488
17.2 Preparation of GPCRs and G-Proteins ................... 489
17.3 Protein Engineering in GPCR Signaling ................. 490
17.4 GPCR Biosensing ....................................... 491
17.5 The Future of GPCRs ................................... 499
References ................................................. 499
18 Microfluidic Devices and Their Applications to Lab-on-a-
Chip
Chong H. Ahn, Jin-Woo Choi ................................. 503
18.1 Materials for Microfluidic Devices and Micro/
Nanofabrication Techniques ............................ 504
18.2 Active Microfluidic Devices ........................... 507
18.3 Smart Passive Microfluidic Devices .................... 513
18.4 Lab-on-a-Chip for Biochemical Analysis ................ 520
References ................................................. 527
19 Centrifuge-Based Fluidic Platforms
Jim V. Zoval, Guangyao Jia, Horacio Kido, Jitae Kim,
Nahui Kim, Marc J. Madou ................................... 531
19.1 Why Centripetal Force for Fluid Propulsion? ........... 532
19.2 Compact Disc or Microcentrifuge Fluidics .............. 534
19.3 CD Applications ....................................... 538
19.4 Conclusion ............................................ 549
References ................................................. 550
20 Micro-/Nanodroplets in Microfluidic Devices
Yung-Chieh Tan, Shia-Yen Teh, Abraham P. Lee ............... 553
20.1 Active or Programmable Droplet Systems ................ 554
20.2 Passive Droplet Control Techniques .................... 557
20.3 Applications .......................................... 564
20.4 Conclusions ........................................... 566
References ................................................. 566
Part С Scanning-Probe Microscopy
21 Scanning Probe Microscopy - Principle of Operation,
Instrumentation, and Probes
Bharat Bhushan, Othmar Marti ............................... 573
21.1 Scanning Tunneling Microscope ......................... 575
21.2 Atomic Force Microscope ............................... 579
21.3 AFM Instrumentation and Analyses ...................... 595
References ................................................. 612
22 General and Special Probes in Scanning Microscopies
Jason Hafner, Edin (I-Chen) Chen, Ratnesh Lal, Sungho
Jin ........................................................ 619
22.1 Atomic Force Microscopy ............................... 620
22.2 Scanning Tunneling Microscopy ......................... 630
References ................................................. 631
23 Noncontact Atomic Force Microscopy and Related Topics
Franz J. Giessibl, Yasuhiro Sugawara, Seizo Morita,
Hirotaka Hosoi, Kazuhisa Sueoka, Koichi Mukasa, Akira
Sasahara, Hiroshi Onishi ................................... 635
23.1 Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) ......................... 636
23.2 Applications to Semiconductors ........................ 641
23.3 Applications to Insulators ............................ 647
23.4 Applications to Molecules ............................. 654
References ................................................. 658
24 Low-Temperature Scanning Probe Microscopy
Markus Morgenstern, Alexander Schwarz, Udo D. Schwarz ...... 663
24.1 Microscope Operation at Low Temperatures .............. 664
24.2 Instrumentation ....................................... 666
24.1 Scanning Tunneling Microscopy and Spectroscopy ........ 669
24.4 Scanning Force Microscopy and Spectroscopy ............ 688
References ................................................. 700
25 Higher Harmonics and Time-Varying Forces in Dynamic
Force Microscopy
Ozgur Sahin, Calvin F. Quate, Olav Solgaard, Franz J.
Giessibl ................................................... 711
25.1 Modeling of Tip-Sample Interaction Forces in
Tapping-Mode AFM ...................................... 712
25.2 Enhancing the Cantilever Response to Time-Varying
Forces ................................................ 714
25.3 Application Examples .................................. 720
25.4 Higher-Harmonic Force Microscopy with Small
Amplitudes ............................................ 724
References ................................................. 728
26 Dynamic Modes of Atomic Force Microscopy
André Schirmeisen, Boris Anczykowski, Hendrik Hölscher,
Harald Fuchs ............................................... 731
26.1 Motivation - Measurement of a Single Atomic Bond ...... 732
26.2 Harmonic Oscillator: a Model System for Dynamic AFM ... 736
26.3 DynamicAFM Operational Modes .......................... 737
26.4 Q-Control ............................................. 750
26.5 Dissipation Processes Measured with Dynamic AFM ....... 754
26.6 Conclusions ........................................... 758
References ................................................. 758
27 Molecular Recognition Force Microscopy: From Molecular
Bonds to Complex Energy Landscapes
Peter Hinterdorfer, Andreas Ebner, Hermann Gruber, Ruti
Kapon, Ziv Reich ........................................... 763
27.1 Ligand Tip Chemistry .................................. 764
27.2 Immobilization of Receptors onto Probe Surfaces ....... 766
27.3 Single-Molecule Recognition Force Detection ........... 767
27.4 Principles of Molecular Recognition Force
Spectroscopy .......................................... 769
27.5 Recognition Force Spectroscopy: From Isolated
Molecules to Biological Membranes ..................... 771
27.6 Recognition Imaging ................................... 779
27.7 Concluding Remarks .................................... 781
References ................................................. 781
Part D Bio-/Nanotribology and Bio-/Nanomechanics
28 Nanotribology, Nanomechanics, and Materials
Characterization
Bharat Bhushan ............................................. 789
28.1 Description of AFM/FFM and Various Measurement
Techniques ............................................ 791
28.2 Surface Imaging, Friction, and Adhesion ............... 802
28.3 Wear, Scratching, Local Deformation, and
Fabrication/Machining ................................. 828
28.4 Indentation ........................................... 836
28.1 Boundary Lubrication .................................. 840
28.2 Conclusion ............................................ 849
References ................................................. 851
29 Surface Forces and Nanorheology of Molecularly Thin Films
Marina Ruths, Jacob N. Israelachvili ....................... 857
29.1 Introduction: Types of Surface Forces ................. 858
29.2 Methods Used to Study Surface Forces .................. 860
29.3 Normal Forces Between Dry (Unlubricated) Surfaces ..... 864
29.4 Normal Forces Between Surfaces in Liquids ............. 868
29.5 Adhesion and Capillary Forces ......................... 878
29.6 Introduction: Different Modes of Friction and the
Limits of Continuum Models ............................ 884
29.7 Relationship Between Adhesion and Friction Between
Dry (Unlubricated and Solid Boundary Lubricated)
Surfaces .............................................. 885
29.8 Liquid Lubricated Surfaces ............................ 896
29.9 Effects of Nanoscale Texture on Friction .............. 908
References ................................................. 911
30 Friction and Wear on the Atomic Scale
Enrico Gnecco, Roland Bennewitz, Oliver Pfeiffer,
Anisoara Socoliuc, Ernst Meyer ............................. 923
30.1 Friction Force Microscopy in Ultrahigh Vacuum ......... 924
30.2 TheTomlinson Model .................................... 928
30.3 Friction Experiments on the Atomic Scale .............. 930
30.4 Thermal Effects on Atomic Friction .................... 935
30.5 Geometry Effects in Nanocontacts ...................... 938
30.6 Wear on the Atomic Scale .............................. 942
30.7 Molecular Dynamics Simulations of Atomic Friction
and Wear .............................................. 944
30.8 Energy Dissipation in Noncontact Atomic Force
Microscopy ............................................ 947
30.9 Conclusion ............................................ 949
References ................................................. 949
31 Computer Simulations of Nanometer-Scale Indentation
and Friction
Susan B. Sinnott, Seong-Jun Heo, Donald W. Brenner,
Judith A. Harrison, Douglas L. Irving ...................... 955
31.1 Computational Details ................................. 956
31.2 Indentation ........................................... 961
31.3 Friction and Lubrication .............................. 976
31.4 Conclusions .......................................... 1002
References ................................................ 1002
32 Force Measurements with Optical Tweezers
Othmar Marti, Katrin Hübner ............................... 1013
32.1 Optical Tweezers ..................................... 1013
32.2 Influence of Surfaces and Viscosity .................. 1017
32.3 Thermal Noise Imaging ................................ 1018
32.4 Applications in Cell Biology ......................... 1018
References ................................................ 1021
33 Scale Effect in Mechanical Properties and Tribology
Bharat Bhushan, Michael Nosonovsky ........................ 1023
33.1 Nomenclature ......................................... 1024
33.2 Introduction ......................................... 1025
33.3 Scale Effect in Mechanical Properties ................ 1027
33.4 Scale Effect in Surface Roughness and Contact
Parameters ........................................... 1031
33.5 Scale Effect in Friction ............................. 1034
33.6 Scale Effect in Wear ................................. 1046
33.7 Scale Effect in Interface Temperature ................ 1046
33.8 Closure .............................................. 1047
33.9 Statistics of Particle Size Distribution ............. 1049
References ................................................ 1052
34 Structural, Nanomechanical, and Nanotribological
Characterization of Human Hair Using Atomic Force
Microscopy and Nanoindentation
Bharat Bhushan, Carmen LaTorre ............................ 1055
34.1 Human Hair, and Skin and Hair Care Products .......... 1058
34.2 Experimental ......................................... 1068
34.3 Structural Characterization Using an AFM ............. 1080
34.4 Nanomechanical Characterization Using
Nanoindentation, Nanoscratch, and AFM ................ 1087
34.5 Multiscale Tribological Characterization ............. 1112
34.6 Conditioner Thickness Distribution and Binding
Interactions on Hair Surface ......................... 1145
34.7 Surface Potential Studies of Human Hair Using
Kelvin Probe Microscopy .............................. 1153
34.8 Conclusions .......................................... 1164
34.A Shampoo and Conditioner Treatment Procedure .......... 1166
34.B Conditioner Thickness Approximation .................. 1166
References ................................................ 1167
35 Cellular Nanomechanics
Roger Kamm, Jan Lammerding, Mohammad Mofrad ............... 1171
35.1 Overview ............................................. 1171
35.2 Structural Components of a Cell ...................... 1173
35.3 Experimental Methods ................................. 1179
35.4 Theoretical and Computational Descriptions ........... 1185
35.5 Mechanics of Subcellular Structures .................. 1188
35.6 Current Understanding and Future Needs ............... 1196
References ................................................ 1196
36 Optical Cell Manipulation
Carsten Stüber, Tobias Kießling, Anatol Fritsch,
Franziska Wetzel, Christian Schulze, Dan Strehle, Josef
Käs ....................................................... 1201
36.1 Interaction of Laser Light with Cells ................ 1202
36.2 Optical Tweezers ..................................... 1206
36.3 Holographic Optical Tweezers ......................... 1209
36.4 Optical Rotation ..................................... 1211
36.5 Microdissection or Laser Scalpels .................... 1213
36.6 Cell Sorting ......................................... 1215
36.7 The Optical Stretcher ................................ 1218
36.8 Conclusion and Outlook ............................... 1222
References ................................................ 1222
37 Mechanical Properties of Nanostructures
Bharat Bhushan ............................................ 1227
37.1 Experimental Techniques for Measurement of
Mechanical Properties of Nanostructures .............. 1229
37.2 Experimental Results and Discussion .................. 1235
37.3 Finite-Element Analysis of Nanostructures with
Roughness and Scratches .............................. 1253
37.4 Summary .............................................. 1259
37.5 Fabrication Procedure for the Double-Anchored and
Cantilever Beams ..................................... 1260
References ................................................ 1262
Part E Molecularly Thick Films for Lubrication
38 Nanotribology of Ultrathin and Hard Amorphous Carbon
Films
Bharat Bhushan ............................................ 1269
38.1 Description of Common Deposition Techniques .......... 1273
38.2 Chemical and Physical Coating Characterization ....... 1277
38.3 Micromechanical and Tribological Coating
Characterization ..................................... 1283
38.4 Closure .............................................. 1304
References ................................................ 1305
39 Self-Assembled Monolayers for Nanotribology and Surface
Protection
Bharat Bhushan ............................................ 1309
39.1 Background ........................................... 1309
39.2 A Primer to Organic Chemistry ........................ 1313
39.3 Self-Assembled Monolayers: Substrates, Spacer
Chains, and End Groups in the Molecular Chains ....... 1316
39.4 Contact Angle and Nanotribological Properties of
SAMs ................................................. 1319
39.5 Summary .............................................. 1340
References ................................................ 1342
40 Nanoscale Boundary Lubrication Studies
Bharat Bhushan ............................................ 1347
40.1 Boundary Films ....................................... 1347
40.2 Nanodeformation, Molecular Conformation, Spreading,
and Nanotribological Studies ......................... 1348
40.3 Nanotribological, Electrical, and Chemical
Degradations Studies and Environmental Effects in
Novel PFPE Lubricant Films ........................... 1366
40.4 Nanotribological and Electrical Studies of Ionic
Liquid Films ......................................... 1375
40.5 Conclusions .......................................... 1392
References ................................................ 1393
Part F Biomimetics
41 Multifunctional Plant Surfaces and Smart Materials
Kerstin Koch, Bharat Bhushan, Wilhelm Barthlott ........... 1399
41.1 The Architecture of Plant Surfaces ................... 1402
41.2 Multifunctional Plant Surfaces ....................... 1417
41.3 Technical Uses of Superhydrophobicity ................ 1426
41.4 Conclusions .......................................... 1430
References ................................................ 1431
42 Lotus Effect: Surfaces with Roughness-Induced
Superhydrophobicity, Self-Cleaning, and Low Adhesion
Bharat Bhushan, Yong Chae Jung, Michael Nosonovsky ........ 1437
42.1 Background ........................................... 1438
42.2 Modeling of Contact Angle for a Liquid in Contact
with a Rough Surface ................................. 1442
42.3 Lotus Effect Surfaces in Nature ...................... 1453
42.4 How to Make a Superhydrophobic Surface ............... 1462
42.5 Fabrication and Characterization of Micro-, Nano-,
and Hierarchical Patterned Surfaces .................. 1468
42.6 Modeling, Fabrication, and Characterization of
Oleophobic/Oleophilic Surfaces ....................... 1509
42.7 Conclusions .......................................... 1517
References ................................................ 1518
43 Biological and Biologically Inspired Attachment Systems
Stanislav N. Gorb ......................................... 1525
43.1 Foreword ............................................. 1525
43.2 Attachment Systems ................................... 1526
43.3 Biological Functions of Attachment ................... 1527
43.4 Time Scale of Attachment ............................. 1529
43.5 Principles of Biological Attachment .................. 1530
43.6 Locomotory Attachment Pads: Hairy Versus Smooth ...... 1533
43.7 Dry and Wet Systems .................................. 1535
43.8 Scaling Effects ...................................... 1536
43.1 Evolutionary Aspects ................................. 1537
43.10 Attachment Devices and Environment .................. 1537
43.11 Design Principles ................................... 1539
43.12 Biomimetics: Where We Are Now ....................... 1540
43.13 Conclusions ......................................... 1544
References ................................................ 1545
44 Gecko Feet: Natural Hairy Attachment Systems for Smart
Adhesion
Bharat Bhushan ............................................ 1553
44.1 Overview ............................................. 1554
44.2 Hairy Attachment Systems ............................. 1554
44.3 Tokay Gecko .......................................... 1556
44.4 Attachment Mechanisms ................................ 1561
44.5 Experimental Adhesion Test Techniques and Data ....... 1563
44.6 Adhesion Modeling .................................... 1566
44.7 Modeling of Biomimetic Fibrillar Structures .......... 1577
44.8 Fabrication of Biomimetic Gecko Skin ................. 1585
44.9 Conclusion ........................................... 1591
44.10 Typical Rough Surfaces .............................. 1593
References ................................................ 1594
Part G Industrial Applications
45 The Millipede - A Nanotechnology-Based AFM Data-Storage
System
Gerd K. Binnig, Giovanni Cherubini, Michel Despont,
Urs T. Dürig, Evangelos Eleftheriou, Haralampos Pozidis,
Peter Vettiger ............................................ 1601
45.1 The Millipede Concept ................................ 1603
45.2 Thermomechanical AFM Data Storage .................... 1604
45.3 Array Design, Technology, and Fabrication ............ 1606
45.4 Array Characterization ............................... 1607
45.5 Three-Terminal Cantilever Design ..................... 1609
45.6 x,y,z Medium Microscanner ............................ 1610
45.7 First Write/Read Results with the 32×32 Array Chip ... 1613
45.8 Polymer Medium ....................................... 1614
45.9 Read Channel Model ................................... 1621
45.10 System Aspects ...................................... 1624
45.11 Conclusions ......................................... 1629
References ................................................ 1630
46 Nanorobotics
Bradley J. Nelson, Lixin Dong ............................. 1633
46.1 Overview of Nanorobotics ............................. 1634
46.2 Actuation at Nanoscales .............................. 1635
46.3 Nanorobotic Manipulation Systems ..................... 1637
46.4 Nanorobotic Assembly ................................. 1642
46.5 Applications ......................................... 1651
References ................................................ 1654
Part H Micro-/Nanodevice Reliability
47 MEMS/NEMS and BioMEMS/BioNEMS: Materials, Devices, and
Biomimetics
Bharat Bhushan ............................................ 1663
47.1 MEMS/NEMS Basics ..................................... 1664
47.2 Nanotribology and Nanomechanics Studies of Silicon
and Related Materials ................................ 1683
47.3 Lubrication Studies for MEMS/NEMS .................... 1691
47.4 Nanotribological Studies of Biological Molecules on
Silicon-Based and Polymer Surfaces and Submicron
Particles for Therapeutics and Diagnostics ........... 1698
47.5 Surfaces with Roughness-Induced
Superhydrophobicity, Self-Cleaning, and Low
Adhesion ............................................. 1708
47.6 Component-Level Studies .............................. 1717
47.7 Conclusions .......................................... 1728
47.8 Micro-Nanofabrication Techniques ..................... 1729
References ................................................ 1733
48 Friction and Wear in Micro- and Nanomachines
Maarten P. de Boer, Alex D. Corwin, Frank W. DelRio,
W. Robert Ashurst ......................................... 1741
48.1 From Single- to Multiple-Asperity Friction ........... 1743
48.2 Nanotractor Device Description ....................... 1747
48.3 Concluding Remarks ................................... 1755
References ................................................ 1756
49 Failure Mechanisms in MEMS/NEMS Devices
W. Merlijn van Spengen, Robert Modliñski, Robert Puers,
Anne Jourdain ............................................. 1761
49.1 Failure Modes and Failure Mechanisms ................. 1762
49.2 Stiction and Charge-Related Failure Mechanisms ....... 1763
49.3 Creep, Fatigue, Wear, and Packaging-Related
Failures ............................................. 1769
49.4 Conclusions .......................................... 1779
References ................................................ 1779
50 Mechanical Properties of Micromachined Structures
Harold Kahn ............................................... 1783
50.1 Measuring Mechanical Properties of Films on
Substrates ........................................... 1783
50.2 Micromachined Structures for Measuring Mechanical
Properties ........................................... 1785
50.3 Measurements of Mechanical Properties ................ 1795
References ................................................ 1799
51 High-Volume Manufacturing and Field Stability of MEMS
Products
Jack Martin ............................................... 1803
51.1 Background ........................................... 1804
51.2 Manufacturing Strategy ............................... 1806
51.3 Robust Manufacturing ................................. 1808
51.4 Stable Field Performance ............................. 1825
References ................................................ 1828
52 Packaging and Reliability Issues in Micro-/Nanosystems
Yu-Chuan Su, Jongbaeg Kim, Yu-Ting Cheng, Mu Chiao,
Liwei Lin ................................................. 1835
52.1 Introduction MEMS Packaging .......................... 1835
52.2 Hermetic and Vacuum Packaging and Applications ....... 1841
52.3 Thermal Issues and Packaging Reliability ............. 1851
52.4 Future Trends and Summary ............................ 1858
References ................................................ 1859
Part I Technological Convergence and Governing Nanotechnology
53 Governing Nanotechnology: Social, Ethical and Human
Issues
William Sims Bainbridge ................................... 1867
53.1 Social Science Background ............................ 1867
53.2 Human Impacts of Nanotechnology ...................... 1871
53.3 Regulating Nanotechnology ............................ 1874
53.4 The Cultural Context for Nanotechnology .............. 1876
53.5 Conclusions .......................................... 1879
References ................................................ 1880
Acknowledgements ............................................. 1885
About the Authors ............................................ 1887
Subject Index ................................................ 1919
|
