Preface ........................................................ xi
Suggested Teaching Schedule .................................. xiii
Prerequisite Knowledge ......................................... xv
Author ....................................................... xvii
List of Symbols ............................................... xix
Chapter 1 General View of Ferroelectrics ....................... 1
1.1 Crystal Structure and Ferroelectricity ..................... 1
1.2 Origin of Spontaneous Polarization ......................... 4
1.3 Origin of Field-Induced Strain ............................. 7
1.4 Electro-Optic Effect ...................................... 11
1.5 Example of Ferroelectrics ................................. 17
1.5.1 Barium Titanate .................................... 17
1.5.2 PZT ................................................ 18
1.5.3 Polyvinylidene Difluoride (PVDF) ................... 19
1.5.4 Pb-Free Piezoceramics .............................. 20
1.6 Applications of Ferroelectrics ............................ 20
References ..................................................... 23
Chapter 2 Mathematical Treatment of Ferroelectrics ............ 25
2.1 Tensor Representation of Physical Properties .............. 25
2.1.1 Fundamentals of Tensor ............................. 25
2.1.2 Tensor Representation .............................. 26
2.1.3 Crystal Symmetry and Tensor Form ................... 27
2.1.4 Reduction of the Tensor (Matrix Notation) .......... 33
2.1.5 Matrix Notation of Electrostrictive Coefficients ... 34
2.2 Phenomenology of Ferroelectricity ......................... 42
2.2.1 Fundamentals of Phenomenology ...................... 42
2.2.2 Landau Theory of the Phase Transition .............. 43
2.2.3 Phenomenology of Electrostriction .................. 47
2.2.4 Converse Effects of Electrostriction ............... 50
2.2.5 Temperature Dependence of Electrostriction ......... 50
2.3 Phenomenology of Antiferroelectricity ..................... 51
2.3.1 Antiferroelectrics ................................. 51
2.3.2 Phenomenology of Antiferroelectrics ................ 52
2.4 Ferroelectric Domain Contributions ........................ 54
2.4.1 Ferroelectric Domain Reorientation ................. 54
2.4.2 Uchida-Ikeda Model ................................. 57
2.4.3 Crystal Structure and Coercive Field ............... 61
2.4.4 Hysteresis Estimation Program ...................... 61
2.4.5 Domain Engineering ................................. 64
References ..................................................... 73
Chapter 3 Designing with Materials and Devices and
Fabrication Processes ............................... 75
3.1 Material Designing ........................................ 75
3.1.1 Composition Selection .............................. 75
3.1.2 Dopant Effects on Ferroelectricity ................. 77
3.1.2.1 Domain Wall Stability ..................... 78
3.1.2.2 Crystallographic Deficiencies ............. 80
3.1.3 High-Power Characteristics ......................... 82
3.2 Fabrication Processes of Ceramics ......................... 85
3.2.1 Preparation of Ceramic Powders ..................... 85
3.2.1.1 Solid-State Reaction ...................... 85
3.2.1.2 Coprecipitation ........................... 86
3.2.1.3 Alkoxide Hydrolysis ....................... 86
3.2.2 Sintering Process .................................. 87
3.2.3 Single Crystal Growth .............................. 90
3.2.3.1 Quartz, LN, and LT ........................ 90
3.2.3.2 PZN-PT, PMN-PT, and PZT ................... 90
3.2.4 Templated Grain Growth ............................. 90
3.3 Device Designing .......................................... 91
3.3.1 Single Disks ....................................... 91
3.3.2 Multilayers ........................................ 92
3.3.3 Unimorphs/Bimorphs ................................. 94
3.3.4 Flextension/Hinge-Lever Amplification Mechanisms ... 98
3.3.5 Flexible Composites ................................ 99
3.3.6 Thin/Thick Films ................................... 99
3.3.6.1 Film Manufacturing Techniques ............. 99
3.3.6.2 MEMS Applications ........................ 101
3.3.6.3 Constraints in Thin/Thick Films .......... 102
3.4 Size Effect on Ferroelectricity .......................... 102
3.4.1 Grain Size Effect on Ferroelectricity ............. 103
3.4.2 3-D Particle Size Effect on Ferroelectricity ...... 105
References .................................................... 112
Chapter 4 High-Permittivity Dielectrics ...................... 115
4.1 Ceramic Capacitors ....................................... 115
4.2 Chip Capacitors .......................................... 116
4.2.1 Thin Multilayer Capacitor ......................... 116
4.2.2 Base-Metal Internal Electrode ..................... 117
4.2.2.1 Barium Titanate-Based Chip ............... 117
4.2.2.2 PbTiO3-Based Chip ........................ 117
4.3 Hybrid Substrates ........................................ 119
4.4 Relaxor Ferroelectrics ................................... 121
4.4.1 High Permittivity ................................. 121
4.4.2 Diffuse Phase Transition .......................... 122
4.4.3 Dielectric Relaxation ............................. 124
References .................................................... 130
Chapter 5 Ferroelectric Memory Devices ....................... 131
5.1 DRAM ..................................................... 131
5.1.1 Principle of DRAM ................................. 131
5.1.2 Ferroelectric DRAM ................................ 135
5.2 Nonvolatile Ferroelectric Memory ......................... 136
5.2.1 FeRAM (Inversion Current Type) .................... 136
5.2.2 MFSFET ............................................ 139
References .................................................... 142
Chapter 6 Pyroelectric Devices ............................... 145
6.1 Pyroelectric Materials ................................... 145
6.1.1 Pyroelectric Effect ............................... 145
6.1.2 Responsivity ...................................... 148
6.1.3 Figures of Merit .................................. 150
6.2 Temperature/Infrared Sensors ............................. 152
6.3 Infrared Image Sensors ................................... 152
6.4 Electrocaloric Devices ................................... 154
6.4.1 Electrocaloric Effect ............................. 154
6.4.1.1 Phenomenological Formula ................. 154
6.4.1.2 Electrocaloric Materials ................. 157
References .................................................... 160
Chapter 7 Piezoelectric Devices .............................. 161
7.1 Piezoelectric Materials and Properties ................... 161
7.1.1 Piezoelectric Figures of Merit .................... 161
7.1.2 Piezoelectric Materials ........................... 167
7.1.2.1 Single Crystals .......................... 168
7.1.2.2 Polycrystalline Materials ................ 168
7.1.2.3 Relaxor Ferroelectrics ................... 172
7.1.2.4 Polymers ................................. 172
7.1.2.5 Composites ............................... 173
7.1.2.6 Thin Films ............................... 173
7.2 Pressure Sensors/Accelerometers/Gyroscopes ............... 174
7.3 Piezoelectric Vibrators/Ultrasonic Transducers ........... 177
7.3.1 Piezoelectric Resonance ........................... 177
7.3.1.1 Piezoelectric Equations .................. 177
7.3.1.2 Electromechanical Coupling Factor ........ 177
7.3.1.3 Longitudinal Vibration Mode .............. 180
7.3.2 Equivalent Circuits of Piezoelectric Vibrators .... 184
7.3.3 Piezoelectric Vibrators ........................... 186
7.3.4 Ultrasonic Transducers ............................ 187
7.3.4.1 Ultrasonic Imaging ....................... 187
7.3.4.2 Sonochemistry ............................ 188
7.3.5 Resonators/Filters ................................ 189
7.4 Surface Acoustic Wave Devices ............................ 191
7.5 Micromass Sensors ........................................ 193
7.5.1 Biosensor ......................................... 193
7.5.2 Viscosity Sensor .................................. 194
7.6 Piezoelectric Transformers ............................... 194
7.7 Piezoelectric Actuators .................................. 198
7.7.1 Ceramic Actuator Materials ........................ 198
7.7.2 Actuator Designs .................................. 200
7.7.3 Drive/Control Techniques .......................... 201
7.7.4 Device Applications ............................... 207
7.7.4.1 Servo Displacement Transducers ........... 207
7.7.4.2 Pulse-Drive Motors ....................... 208
7.8 Ultrasonic Motors ........................................ 212
7.8.1 Ultrasonic Motors (USM) ........................... 212
7.8.2 Classification and Principles of Ultrasonic
Motors ............................................ 214
7.8.2.1 Standing-Wave Type ....................... 214
7.8.2.2 Propagating-Wave Type .................... 215
7.8.3 Standing Wave-Type Motors ......................... 216
7.8.3.1 Rotary Motors ............................ 216
7.8.3.2 Linear Motors ............................ 218
7.8.4 Propagating Wave-Type Motors ...................... 219
7.8.4.1 Linear Motors ............................ 219
7.8.4.2 Rotary Motors ............................ 220
7.8.4.3 Comparison of the Various Ultrasonic
Motors ................................... 223
7.8.5 Smooth Impact Drive Mechanism (SIDM) .............. 224
7.9 Piezoelectric Energy Harvesting .......................... 224
7.9.1 Piezoelectric Passive Damping to Energy
Harvesting ........................................ 224
7.9.2 High-Energy Harvesting (~W) ....................... 225
7.9.3 Low-Energy Harvesting (~mW) ....................... 227
References .................................................... 232
Chapter 8 Electro-Optic Devices .............................. 235
8.1 Electro-Optic Effect—Review .............................. 235
8.2 Transparent Electro-Optic Ceramics ....................... 235
8.2.1 (Pb,La)(Zr,Ti)O3 .................................. 236
8.2.2 PMN-PT ............................................ 239
8.2.3 Pb(Zn1/3Nb2/3)O3 .................................... 241
8.3 Bulk Electro-Optic Devices ............................... 242
8.3.1 Ferpic ............................................ 242
8.3.2 Eye Protection Application ........................ 243
8.3.3 Stereo TV Application ............................. 243
8.3.4 Two-Dimensional Displays .......................... 244
8.3.4.1 Fabrication Process of the 2-D Display ... 244
8.3.4.2 Characteristics of the Light Valve
Array .................................... 246
8.3.4.3 Construction of the Image Projector ...... 247
8.3.5 KTN Single Crystal Optical Switch ................. 251
8.3.6 Laser Beam Scanner ................................ 252
8.4 Waveguide Modulators ..................................... 252
8.4.1 LiNbO3, Waveguide ................................. 252
8.4.2 PZT Thin Film Waveguide ........................... 254
References .................................................... 259
Chapter 9 PTC Materials ...................................... 261
9.1 Mechanism of PTC Phenomenon .............................. 261
9.1.1 PTC Phenomenon .................................... 261
9.1.2 Mechanism of the PTC Phenomenon ................... 261
9.1.2.1 Semiconducting Properties ................ 261
9.1.2.2 Schottky Barrier Effect .................. 263
9.1.2.3 Experimental Verification ................ 265
9.2 PTC Thermistors .......................................... 266
9.3 Grain Boundary Layer Capacitors .......................... 269
References .................................................... 272
Chapter 10 Composite Materials ................................ 273
10.1 Connectivity ............................................. 273
10.2 Composite Effects ........................................ 274
10.2.1 Sum Effects ....................................... 274
10.2.2 Combination Effects ............................... 275
10.2.3 Product Effects ................................... 276
10.3 PZT:Polymer Composites ................................... 277
10.3.1 Piezoelectric Composite Materials ................. 277
10.3.2 Principle of PZT:Polymer Composites ............... 278
10.3.3 Theoretical Models for 0-3 Composites ............. 281
10.3.4 Advanced PZT:Polymer Composites ................... 283
10.4 Composite Dampers and Energy Harvesters .................. 284
10.4.1 Piezoelectric Composite Dampers ................... 284
10.4.2 Piezoelectric Composite Energy Harvesting ......... 288
10.5 Magnetoelectric Sensors .................................. 290
References .................................................... 296
Chapter 11 Future of Ferroelectric Devices .................... 297
11.1 Market Share ............................................. 297
11.1.1 Market Share of Ferroelectric Devices ............. 297
11.1.2 Market Share of Piezoelectric Actuators ........... 298
11.2 Reliability Issues ....................................... 300
11.2.1 Materials Improvements ............................ 300
11.2.2 Reliability of Devices ............................ 301
11.2.3 Drive/Control Techniques .......................... 303
11.2.4 Safety Systems .................................... 303
11.3 Development of Bestselling Devices ....................... 304
11.3.1 Three Creativities ................................ 304
11.3.2 Technological Creativity .......................... 304
11.3.2.1 Discovery of a New Function or
Material ................................. 304
11.3.2.2 Performance Improvement .................. 308
11.3.3 Product Planning Creativity ....................... 314
11.3.3.1 Seeds and Needs .......................... 314
11.3.3.2 Innovation Obstacle in Technology
Management ............................... 316
11.3.3.3 Development Pace ......................... 316
11.3.3.4 Specifications ........................... 316
11.3.3.5 Product Design Philosophy ................ 318
11.3.3.6 Smart Systems ............................ 318
11.3.4 Marketing Creativity .............................. 319
11.3.4.1 Choose Your Customers .................... 320
11.3.4.2 Narrow Your Focus ........................ 322
11.3.4.3 Dominate Your Market ..................... 326
11.3.5 Business Strategy ................................. 327
11.3.5.1 Analysis Tools ........................... 328
11.3.5.2 Internal Environmental Analysis .......... 329
11.3.5.3 External Environmental Analysis .......... 331
References .................................................... 337
Index ......................................................... 339
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