Major Sections
Foreword ...................................................... III
Preface ......................................................... V
About this Volume .............................................. VI
Acknowledgments ............................................... VII
F-l. Glaciers of the Former Soviet Union, by Vladimir M.
Kotlyakov, senior author, with contributions from
A.M. Dyakova (Siberia), V.S. Koryakin (Russian Arctic
Islands), V.I. Kravtsova (Caucasus, Altay),
G.B. Osipova (Tien Shan), G.M. Varnakova (Pamirs and
Alai Range), V.N. Vinogradov (Kamchatka),
O.N. Vinogradov (Caucasus), and N.M. Zverkova (Ural
Mountains and Taymyr Peninsula) ........................... Fl
With sections on Fluctuations of Glaciers of
the Central Caucasus and Gora El'Brus (with
a subsection on The Glaciological Disaster in North
Osetiya), by Vladmir M. Kotlyakov, O.V. Rototaeva,
and G.A. Nosenko, Investigations of the Fluctuations
of Surge-Type Glaciers in the Pamirs Based on
Observations from Space, by Vladimir M. Kotlyakov,
G.B. Osipova and D.G. Tsvetkov, and the Glaciology
of the Russian High Arctic from Landsat Imagery,
by J.A. Dowdeswell, E.K. Dowdeswell, M. Williams,
and A.F. Clazovskii ................................... F59
F-2. Glaciers of China, by Shi Yafeng, Mi Desheng, Yao
Tandong, Zeng Qunzhu, and Liu Chaohai ................... F127
F-3. Glaciers of Afghanistan, by John E. Shroder, Jr., and
Michael P. Bishop ....................................... F167
F-4. Glaciers of Pakistan, by John E. Shroder, Jr., and
Michael P. Bishop ....................................... F201
F-S. Glaciers of India, by Chander P. Vohra .................. F259
With an updated supplement on A Study of Selected
Glaciers Under the Changing Climate Regime, by Syed
Iqbal Hasnain, Rajesh Kumar, Safaraz Ahmad, and
Shresth Tayal ........................................ F275
F-6. Glaciers of Nepal - Glacier Distribution in the Nepal
Himalaya with Comparison to the Karakoram Range, by
Keiji Higuchi, Okitsugu Watanabe, Hiroji Fushimi,
Shuhei Takenaka, and Akio Nagoshi ....................... F293
With a supplementhy Yutaka Ageta ..................... F317
F-7. Glaciers of Bhutan, by Shuji Iwata ...................... F321
F-8. The Paleoenvironmental Record Preserved in Middle-
Latitude, High-Mountain Glaciers: An Overview of U.S.
Geological Survey Research in Central Asia and the
United States, by L. DeWayne Cecil, David L. Naftz,
Paul F. Schuster, David D. Susong, and Jaromy
R. Green ................................................ F335
Glaciers of the Former Soviet Union - by V.M. Kotlyakov,
senior author, with contributions from A.M. Dyakova (Siberia),
V.S. Koryakin (Russian Arctic Islands), V.I. Kravtsova
(Caucasus, Altay), G.B. Osipova (Tien Shan), G.M. Varnakova
(Pamirs and Alai Range), V.N. Vinogradov (Kamchatka),
O.N. Vinogradov (Caucasus), and N.M. Zverkova (Ural Mountains
and Taymyr Peninsula) ........................................... 1
Abstract ........................................................ 1
Introduction .................................................... 1
Discussion of Glaciers by Region ................................ 2
Figure 1. Glacierized regions of the Former Soviet Union
according to the Glacier Inventory of the USSR ..... 3
Table 1. Data on the glaciers of the Former Soviet Union .... 3
Figure 2. Morphological types of mountain glaciers adopted
for the Glacier Inventory of the USSR .............. 4
Caucasus (in Russia and the Republic of Georgia) ... 4
Figure 3. Map of the glacierization of a large portion of
the Caucasus region, compiled for the World Atlas
of Snow and Ice Resources .......................... 5
Table 2. Distribution of glaciers in the main regions of
the Caucasus ....................................... 5
Table 3. Glacier complexes and large glaciers of the
Caucasus
Table 4. The distribution of glaciers and glacier
complexes in the Caucasus based on their area ...... 6
Table 5. The distribution of glaciers of the Caucasus
according to morphological types ................... 7
Figure 4. Part of an enlarged Landsat 2 MSS image taken
on 9 July 1976, and map of the morphologial types
of glaciers of the same part of the Western
Caucasus, including Gora El'brus ................... 7
Figure 5. Aerial photograph of the Lednik Marukhskiy taken
on 15 September 1955, and a series of
glaciological maps of this glacier based on
detailed studies done during the IHD ............. 8-9
Figure 6. Enlargement of part of a Landsat 2 MSS image
taken on 9 July 1976, depicting the El'brus
massif ............................................ 10
Figure 7. Panoramic photographic mosaic of the northern
and southern slopes of Gora El'brus ............... 10
Figure 8. Part of an enlargement of a Landsat 2 MSS image
of the Central Caucasus, taken on 13 September
1977, and map of the morphological types of
glaciers of the Central Caucasus .................. 11
Figure 9. Two enlargements of the part of the Central
Caucasus around Lednik Bezengi depicted on Landsat
2 MSS images taken on 9 July 1976 and 13 September
1977 .............................................. 12
Figure 10. Illustrations of the surging Lednik Kolka, Gora
Kazbek: Aerial photograph, sketch map of the
advance, and morphology of the glacier basin ...... 13
Figure 11. Part of the Eastern Caucasus with the Djul'tydag
range depicted on a Landsat 2 MSS image taken on
28 August 1976 .................................... 14
Pamirs, Alai (Alayskiy), and Gissar (Hisor) Ranges (in the
Republics of Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, and Uzbekistan) ........... 14
Table 6. Largest glaciers of the Pamirs and the Gissar
(Hisor) and Alai (Alayskiy) Ranges ................ 15
Table 7. Distribution of glaciers based on their area ...... 15
Figure 12. Landsat 2 MSS image of the Central Pamirs
acquired on 28 September 1977, and the
distribution pattern of the area and number of
glaciers related to glacier orientation in the
Hisor and Alayskiy Ranges and the Pamirs .......... 16
Figure 13. The Lednik Bivachnyy surging glacier, tributary
of Lednik Fedchenko with loops of medial
moraines .......................................... 17
Figure 14. Enlargement of part of the Landsat image,
showing the Lednik Fedchenko basin, and sketch
map showing the distribution pattern of
morphological types of glaciers in this area ...... 18
Figure 15. Enlargement of part of the Landsat image of 28
September 1977, showing the eastern part of
Zaalayskiy Khrebet (Qatorkŭhi Pasi Oloy) and
part of the Eastern Pamirs, and sketch map
showing the pattern of morphological types of
glaciers in this region ........................... 19
Figure 16. Debris-free slope glaciers of the Eastern
Pamirs ............................................ 20
Figure 17. Enlargement of part of the Landsat image,
showing the upper reaches of the Saukdara river,
and sketch map of surges of the Saukdara group
of glaciers from 1973 to 1977 ..................... 20
Figure 18. Photograph taken August 1976 of the rapid
advance of ice of Lednik Valy caused by its
surge ............................................. 21
Figure 19. Photograph showing the western part of the
Khrebet Alayskiy on 18 September 1976 ............. 22
Tien Shan (in the Republics of Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan) ...... 22
Figure 20. Morphological types of glaciers in the western
part of Khrebet Alayskiy delineated from space
photographs and images ............................ 23
Table 8. Distribution of Tien Shan glaciers in various
river or lake basins .............................. 23
Piks Pobedy and Khan-Tengri in Central Tien Shan ............. 24
Figure 21. Part of a Landsat 2 MSS image of the Pobedy and
Khan Tägiri/Kan-Too peak region taken on
16 October 1976 ................................... 24
Table 9. Largest glaciers in the Tien Shan ................. 25
Table 10.Distribution of glaciers in two regions of the
Central Tien Shan based on their area ............. 25
Figure 22. Enlargement of part of a Landsat 1 MSS image
taken on 18 September 1973, and aerial
photograph and map of the same area ............... 26
Khrebet Ak-Shyyrak in Central Tien Shan ........................ 27
Figure 23. Enlargement of part of a Landsat 1 MSS image of
Khrebet Ak-Shyyrak taken on 18 September 1973,
map of the morphological types of glaciers, and
distribution pattern of the area and number of
glaciers .......................................... 28
Figure 24. Aerial photograph of Lednik Severniy Karasay in
Khrebet Ak-Shyyrak ................................ 28
Altay (Russia and Kazakhstan) .................................. 29
Figure 25. Glaciers in the main mountain-glacier areas of
the Altay - on the Katunskiy, Severo-Chuyskiy,
and Yuzhno-Chuyskiy Khrebet, and the
distribution pattern of the area and number of
glaciers .......................................... 29
Table 11.Largest glaciers in the Russian Altay ............. 30
Figure 26. Image of the central Altay with the Gora Belukha
glacier group taken from the Salyut-1 space
station on 14June 1971; and comparison of the
delineation of the glacier boundaries shown on
topographic maps and derived from the space
image ............................................. 31
Figure 27. Part of a Landsat 2 MSS image of Katunskiy
Khrebet taken on 11 July 1977, map of surface
morphology, and morphological types of glaciers
in this region .................................... 32
Figure 28. Part of the Landsat 2 MSS image taken on 11 July
1977 of the Bish-Irdu glacier complex in the
Severo-Chuyskiy Khrebet, enlarged portion of the
image, and depiction of this region on a map ...... 33
Ural Mountains (Ural'skiye Gory) ............................... 34
Figure 29. Enlargement of a Landsat 1 MSS image of the
Northern Urals acquired on 25 June 1973 ........... 34
Figure 30. Distribution pattern of glaciers in the Polar
Urals, and by area and number related to
orientation ....................................... 35
Figure 31. Part of an enlargement of a Landsat 1 MSS image
of part of the Polar Urals acquired on 6 March
1973: Bol'shoy Khadyta river-valley, and
location of the Lednik Obrucheva .................. 36
Figure 32. Aerial photograph taken on 30 July 1953 of
Lednik Obrucheva; morphology of the surface; and
changes of the surface elevation of the Lednik
Obrucheva in the Polar Urals ...................... 36
The Byrranga Mountains (Gory Byrranga) in Northern Russia ...... 37
Figure 33. Landsat 1 MSS image acquired 26 July 1973
showing the distribution of glaciers in the Gory
Byrranga in the region near lat. 76°N., long.
108°E.; sketch of glacier location; and dis
tribution pattern of glacier orientation in the
Gory Byrranga ..................................... 37
Northeastern Siberia ........................................... 38
Figure 34. Distribution of glaciers over Khrebet Suntar-
Khayata; distribution patterns of the number and
area of glaciers relating to the orientation in
Khrebet Suntar-Khayata; and Khrebet Cherskogo ..... 38
Table 12.Distribution of glaciers in the Khrebet Suntar-
Khayata based on their size ....................... 39
Figure 35. Enlargements of two Landsat 2 MSS images of the
Koryakskoye highland, northeastern Siberia,
taken on 2 July 1975 and 26 August 1975; and
distribution of glaciers in the highest part of
the Koryakskoye highland .......................... 39
Figure 36. Distribution of aufeis areas in northeastern
Siberia ........................................... 40
Kamchatka ...................................................... 40
Figure 37. Morphological types of present-day glaciers in
the volcanic regions of Kamchatka ................. 41
Figure 38. Aerial photograph of glaciers in the crater and
on the slopes of Vulkan Mutnovskaya Sopka ......... 41
Russian Arctic ................................................. 42
Franz Josef Land (Zemlya Frantsa-Iosifa) ....................... 42
Figure 39. Glacierized regions of Franz Josef Land: western
region; central region; and eastern region ........ 43
Table 13.The area of glaciers in Franz Josef Land .......... 43
Figure 40. Landsat 3 MSS image of the western part of Franz
Josef Land acquired on 24 March 1978 .............. 44
Severnaya Zemlya ............................................... 44
Figure 41. Glacierization of Severnaya Zemlya ................ 45
Table 14.The area of glaciers on Severnaya Zemlya .......... 45
Figure 42. Landsat 1 MSS image of the northern part of
Severnaya Zemlya taken on 28 July 1973 ............ 46
Novaya Zemlya .................................................. 47
Conclusions .................................................... 47
Figure 43. Glacierization of Novaya Zemlya ................... 48
Acknowledgments ................................................ 48
Table 15.The glaciers on Novaya Zemlya ..................... 49
Figure 44. Landsat 1 MSS image of the central part of
Novozemel'skiy ice cap taken on 23 July 1973 ...... 49
Table 16.Optimum Landsat 1,2, and 3 MSS images of
glaciers of the Former Soviet Union ............ 50-55
Figure 45. Index map of the optimum Landsat 1,2, and 3
MSS images of the Former Soviet Union .......... 56-58
Fluctuations of Glaciers of the Central Caucasus and Gora
Elbrus, with a Section on the Glaciological Disaster in
North Osetiya - by V.M. Kotlyakov, O.V. Rototaeva, and
G.A. Nosenko ................................................... 59
Introduction ................................................... 59
Figure 46. Image of Gora El'brus and its glaciers on 25
August 2002 ....................................... 60
Figure 47. ASTER image of the glaciers on the southern
slope of Gora El'brus taken on 15 September
2001 .............................................. 60
Figure 48. Map of the glaciers of Gora El'brus ............... 61
Table 17.Changes in the position of the termini of Elbrus
glaciers during different periods of
observation ....................................... 61
Figure 49. Part of the 25 August 2002 International Space
Station image enlarged to show the lake-moraine
complex near the terminus of the retreating
Lednik Birdzhalytchiran, Gora El'brus ............. 63
Figure 50. Aerial and space photographs of Lednik
Bol'shoy Azau, Gora El'brus, showing changes in
the terminus shape and position ................... 64
Figure 51. Aerial photograph (1987) of the terminus of
Lednik Ullumalienderku, Gora El'brus, during
a surge event ..................................... 65
Glaciological Disaster in North Osetiya ........................ 66
Figure 52. Photographs (1981 and 2004) of the Lednik
Kukurtli, Gora El'brus ............................ 67
Figure 53. ASTER image taken on 15 September 2001, showing
glaciers of the central Caucasus .................. 68
Table 18.Changes in the position of glacier termini from
1987 to 2001/04 in the Tcherek River basin ........ 68
Figure 54. Image taken from the International Space Station
in 2002, showing the retreating Lednik Karaugom ... 69
Figure 55. Aerial photograph taken in July 2004 of the
terminus of Lednik Ailama and the stagnant
terminus of Lednik Dykh-su covered with debris .... 69
Figure 56. Photograph taken in August 2003 of the advancing
front of Lednik Mizhirgitchiran ................... 70
Figure 57. Oblique aerial photograph of avalanche debris in
the Karmadon basin caused by the 20 September
2002 catastrophic collapse of the Lednik Kolka .... 70
Figure 58. Two ASTER images of the Genaldon river valley,
scene of the Lednik Kolka disaster ................ 71
Figure 59. Oblique aerial photograph taken on 21 September
2002, looking southwest at the avalanche debris
saturated with water .............................. 72
Figure 60. Oblique aerial photograph taken on 24 September
2002, looking south at the mountain crest in the
source region of Lednik Kolka ..................... 73
Figure 61. International Space Station image taken on 13
August 2002 of Lednik Maili and Lednik Kolka ...... 74
Figure 62. Oblique aerial photograph taken September 2002,
looking south at the empty cirque of Lednik
Kolka after the disaster .......................... 74
Figure 63. International Space Station image taken on 19
October 2002, looking south at Gora Kasbek
volcanic massif and the cirques of Ledniki Maili
and Kolka ......................................... 75
Figure 64. Enlarged section of 27 September 2002 ASTER
image ............................................. 75
Figure 65. Terrestrial photograph taken on 28 June 2003 of
one of the lakes in the Kolka bed dammed by a
combination of ice and debris ..................... 76
Figure 66. Oblique aerial photograph taken on September
2003, looking southeast at the collapsing
avalanche debris in Karmadon basin and the
dammed lake near Saniba settlement one year
after the disaster ................................ 76
Investigations of the Fluctuations of Surge-Type Glaciers in
the Pamirs based on Observations from Space - by
V.M. Kotlyakov, G.B. Osipova, and D.G.Tsvetkov ................. 77
Introduction ................................................... 77
Compilation of an Inventory of Surging Glaciers of
the Pamirs ..................................................... 77
Table 19.The number of surge-type glaciers in the large
river basins of the Pamirs ........................ 78
Table 20.The largest observed surges of the glaciers of
the Pamirs from 1960 to 2003 ...................... 78
Figure 67. KFA-1000 photograph taken in 1973 from a
Resurs-Fl satellite showing surge-type glaciers
in the Central Pamirs ............................. 79
Figure 68. KFA-1000 photograph taken in 1985 from
a Resurs-Fl satellite showing surge-type
glaciers in the central part of Zaalayskiy
Khrebet (Qatorkŭhi Pasi Oloy in Tajikistan,
Chong Alay Kyrka Toosu in Kyrgyzstan) ............. 80
Investigation of the Fluctuation Regime of Compound Glaciers ... 80
Figure 69. Morphology of the lower part of
Lednik Oktyabr'skiye from 1946 to 1990 ............ 81
Figure 70. Photographs from space of Lednik Oktyabr'skiye .... 82
Figure 71. Graph of the velocity of the ice movement along
longitudinal profile of Lednik Oktyabr'skiye,
showing the stage of recovery (1972-1985) and
the surge (1985-1990) ............................. 82
Figure 72. Photographs of Lednik Bivachniy and Lednik
Moscow State University: 1973, pre-surge; 1980,
post-surge; and 2001 soon after the successive
surge ............................................. 83
Figure 73. Images from space of the Gundo-Dorofeeva glacier
system before, during, and after the 1989-1990
surge ............................................. 84
The State of Surging Glaciers - Ledniki Medvezhiy and
Geograficheskogo Obshchestva ................................... 85
Figure 74. Aerial photographs showing the tongue of Lednik
Medvezhiy during the surge of 1988 to 1989, and
in 2001 ........................................... 86
Figure 75. Sketch map of the Lednik Geograficheskogo
Obshchestva (RGO Glacier) basin showing glaciers,
the reconstructed outline of the glacier's
terminus in 1916, a reconstructed dammed lake
in 1916, locations of velocity profiles, and
a mudflow on the surface of the glacier in
September 2002 .................................... 88
Figure 76. Aerial photograph taken on 13 October 2002 of
the terminus of Lednik RGO, looking northeast ..... 89
Figure 77. International Space Station images of Lednik RGO
taken on 25 June 2001 and 30 September 2002 ....... 90
Investigations of the Fluctuations of "Normal" Non-Surging
Glaciers in the Eastern Pamirs ................................. 90
Figure 78. Landsat image of the Eastern Pamirs where
glacier-retreat measurements listed in table 21
were made ......................................... 91
Table 21.Retreat velocity of the termini of glaciers of
the Eastern Pamirs from 1972 to 2001 .............. 92
Figure 79. Sketch map showing the retreat of the terminus
of Lednik Severniy Zulumart (Eastern Pamirs)
based on interpretation of a 1946 aerial
photograph and 1972,1978,1990, and 2001 space
images and photographs ............................ 92
Table 22.Retreat of the terminus and decrease in the area
of the tongue of Lednik Severniy Zulumart from
1946 to 2001 ...................................... 93
The Glaciology of the Russian High Arctic from Landsat
Imagery - by J.A. Dowdeswell, E.K. Dowdeswell, M.Williams,
and A.F. Glazovskii ............................................ 94
Abstract ....................................................... 94
Introduction ................................................... 95
Glaciological Background ....................................... 95
Figure 80. Map of the Russian High Arctic showing the major
ice-covered archipelagos of Franz Josef Land,
Novaya Zemlya, and Severnaya Zemlya, together
with the smaller glacierized islands further
east .............................................. 96
Figure 81. Diagrams showing the effects of cloud cover on
Landsat image quality for selected Path-Rows in
the Russian High Arctic, including Franz Josef
Land, Novaya Zemlya, and Severnaya Zemlya: April
to September, May, July and September ............. 97
Franz Josef Land ............................................... 98
Severnaya Zemlya ............................................... 98
Figure 82. Map of the Franz Josef Land archipelago showing
the distribution of ice masses .................... 99
Figure 83. Map of the islands of Severnaya Zemlya showing
the distribution of ice masses ................... 100
Figure 84. Landsat false-color Multispectral Scanner image
of the ice caps in northern Severnaya Zemlya ..... 101
Novaya Zemlya ................................................. 102
Other Glacierized Islands in the Russian High Arctic .......... 102
Figure 85. Map of Novaya Zemlya showing the distribution
of ice masses .................................... 103
Glaciological Investigation of Russian High Arctic Ice
Masses from Landsat Imagery ................................... 104
Ice-Surface Topography ........................................ 104
Figure 86. Map of the ice divides on the ice caps of Franz
Josef Land, shown on a georeferenced mosaic of
Landsat TM images acquired on 25 July 1986 ....... 105
Ice Dynamics .................................................. 105
Outlet Glaciers and Icebergs .................................. 105
Figure 87. Landsat TM image sub-scene showing an example
of the major ice divides on the Ostrov Gallya
ice cap in Franz Josef Land ...................... 106
Figure 88. Digitally enhanced Landsat TM image sub-scene
of the major ice divide running along the
northeast-southwest trending spine of Novaya
Zemlya ........................................... 107
Figure 89. Landsat TM images of iceberg-producing outlet
glaciers draining ice caps in the Russian High
Arctic ........................................... 108
Figure 90. Four georeferenced and edge-enhanced sub-scenes
of Landsat images of the Lednik Znamenityy on
Zemlya Vil cheka, Franz Josef Land, showing
large numbers of tabular icebergs ................ 109
Floating Ice Shelves or Ice Tongues ........................... 110
Figure 91. Annotated Landsat TM band 3 image sub-scene of
the Lednik Matusevicha on Ostrov Oktyabr skoy
Revolyutsii, Severnaya Zemlya .................... 110
Figure 92. Graph showing ice-surface profiles from two ice
shelves and their parent drainage basins on
Severnaya Zemlya, derived from analysis of
Russian aerial photographs from the 1950s ........ 111
Figure 93. Landsat TM image of three flat ice-marginal
glacier termini on the ice cap on Ostrov Zemlya
Georga, western Franz Josef Land ................. 112
Figure 94. Map of the ice caps on Franz Josef Land, with
marginal areas of low surface gradient ........... 113
Surge-Type Glaciers ........................................... 114
Figure 95. Digitally enhanced Landsat TM image of the
outlet glaciers entering Zaliv Nordenshel'da,
Novaya Zemlya .................................... 115
Snow-and-Ice Facies and Glacier Mass Balance .................. 115
Figure 96. Digitally enhanced Landsat TM sub-scene showing
the snow-and-ice facies on a summer image of
the Lednik Kropotkina on Ostrov Zemlya
Aleksandry, Franz Josef Land ..................... 116
Figure 97. Landsat TM sub-scene of Ostrov Ketlitsa, Franz
Josef Land ....................................... 117
Conclusions ................................................... 118
Acknowledgments ............................................... 119
References Cited .............................................. 119
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