Volume 1: Coal - Geology and Combustion
Volume 2: Photographs and Multimedia Tours
Volume 3: Case Studies - Coal Fires
Volume 4: Peat - Geology, Combustion, and Case Studies
On Line: Interactive World Map of Coal and Peat Fires
by Rudiger Gens
Captions for Front Cover Photos ................................ ii
Dedication ...................................................... v
Preface ....................................................... vii
Acknowledgments ................................................ ix
List of Contributors .......................................... xix
Chapters
1. Coal Formation and the Origin of Coal Fires ................. 1
Ann G. Kim
1.1. The Formation of Coal ................................. 2
Introduction .......................................... 2
Geologic Distribution of Coal Seams ................... 3
Coal Swamps ........................................... 5
Cyclothems ............................................ 5
Coalification ......................................... 6
Coal Composition ..................................... 10
1.2. Origin of Coal Fires ................................. 15
Introduction ......................................... 15
Incidence of Coal Fires .............................. 16
Ignition and Propagation of Coal Fires ............... 16
Control of Coal Fires ................................ 19
Conclusions .......................................... 22
Acknowledgments ...................................... 23
Important Terms ...................................... 23
References ........................................... 24
WWW Addresses: Additional Reading .................... 28
2. Coal-Mining Techniques and Coal Fires ...................... 29
Stanley R. Michalski
2.1. Brief History of Coal Mining ......................... 30
Introduction ......................................... 30
Evolution of Coal Mining ............................. 30
Coal-Mining Techniques ............................... 31
Coal-Mining Machines ................................. 32
2.2. Underground Coal Mining .............................. 33
Underground Mining ................................... 33
Methods of Coal Mining ............................... 34
The Special Case of Anthracite Mining ................ 36
Ventilation .......................................... 36
2.3. Surface Coal Mining .................................. 37
Surface Mining ....................................... 37
Contour Mining ....................................... 37
Area Mining .......................................... 38
Auger Mining ......................................... 38
Mountain Top Removal ................................. 38
2.4. Coal Mining and Coal Fires ........................... 39
Discovery and Investigation .......................... 39
Monitoring ........................................... 39
Mine Atmosphere ...................................... 40
Abatement ............................................ 41
Acknowledgments ...................................... 42
Important Terms ...................................... 43
References ........................................... 44
WWW Addresses: Additional Reading .................... 45
3. Spontaneous Combustion and Coal Petrology .................. 47
Maria Mastalerz, Agnieszka Drobniak, James C. Hower,
Jennifer M.K. O'Keefe
3.1. Spontaneous Combustion and Coal Petrology ............ 48
Introduction ......................................... 48
Maceral Composition of Coal .......................... 48
Inorganic Matter in Coal ............................. 50
Microlithotypes ...................................... 54
Lithotypes ........................................... 54
Coal Rank ............................................ 55
Coal Petrology and Spontaneous Combustion ............ 56
Important Terms ...................................... 60
References ........................................... 61
WWW Addresses: Additional Reading .................... 62
4. Coal and Ancient Man: Cremation at the Tschudi Burn,
Chan Chan, Northern Peru ................................... 63
William E. Brooks, Cesar G. Mora, John С. Jackson,
John P. McGeehin, Darden G. Hood
4.1. Coal and Ancient Man ................................. 64
Introduction ......................................... 64
Coal in Peru ......................................... 64
Chan Chan ............................................ 65
Metallurgical Furnace or Crematorium ................. 66
Temperature of the Tschudi Burn ...................... 66
Calcium in the Soil .................................. 67
Sulfur in the Soil ................................... 68
Fuel Ash Chemistry ................................... 68
Oxide and Trace Element Data ......................... 69
14C Date ............................................. 74
Cremation in Society ................................. 74
Fuel for Cremation ................................... 75
Cremation at the Tschudi Burn ........................ 76
Discussion ........................................... 77
References ........................................... 78
WWW Addresses: Additional Reading .................... 81
5. Geotechnical and Environmental Problems: Coal
and Spontaneous Combustion ................................. 83
Laurance J. Donnelly, Fred G. Bell
5.1. Geotechnical and Environmental Problems .............. 84
Introduction ......................................... 84
Origin of Spontaneous Combustion ..................... 85
Spontaneous Combustion: Life and Human Health ........ 85
Coal Seam and Colliery-Spoil Heap Fires .............. 86
Control and Preventation of Spontaneous Combustion
and Coal Fires ....................................... 86
Examples of Spontaneous Combustion and
Coal Fires ........................................... 89
Conclusions .......................................... 98
Acknowledgments ...................................... 99
Important Terms ...................................... 99
References ........................................... 99
6. The Effects of Global Coal Fires .......................... 101
Glenn B. Stracher, Tammy P. Taylor
6.1. The Global Catastrophe .............................. 102
Introduction ........................................ 102
The Mining Hazard ................................... 103
Catastrophic Coal Fires ............................. 105
Discussion .......................................... 109
Acknowledgments ..................................... 110
Important Terms ..................................... 110
References .......................................... 110
WWW Addresses: Additional Reading ................... 113
7. Environmental and Health Impacts of Coal Fires ............ 115
Robert B. Finkelman, Glenn B. Stracher
7.1. Environmental and Health Impacts of Coal Fires ...... 116
Introduction ........................................ 116
Environmental Consequences .......................... 118
Health-Related Effects .............................. 121
Discussion .......................................... 122
Important Terms ..................................... 123
References .......................................... 123
WWW Addresses: Additional Reading ................... 125
8. Analysis of Coal-Mine-Fire Gas ............................ 127
Timothy R. Blake, Simone Meinardi, Donald R. Blake
8.1. Trace Gas Analyses .................................. 128
Introduction ........................................ 128
Gas Collection ...................................... 128
Sample Analyses ..................................... 129
Methane System ...................................... 129
CO/CO2 System ....................................... 130
VOC System .......................................... 130
Quality Control: Standards .......................... 132
Modifying ........................................... 133
Important Terms ..................................... 133
References .......................................... 133
WWW Addresses: Additional Reading ................... 134
9. Gas Vent Mineralization and Coal Combustion ............... 135
Glenn B. Stracher
9.1. The Origin of Gas Vent Minerals ..................... 136
Introduction ........................................ 136
Mineral-Forming Processes ........................... 136
Isochemical Mineralization .......................... 136
Mass Transfer Mineralization ........................ 138
Discussion .......................................... 142
9.2. Sample Collecting and Field Data .................... 143
Introduction ........................................ 143
Safety Precautions .................................. 143
GPS and Temperature Measurements .................... 144
Mineral and Rock-Collecting Techniques .............. 145
Gas-Collecting Techniques ........................... 147
In Situ Chemical Analyses ........................... 148
Discussion .......................................... 150
Acknowledgments ..................................... 151
Important Terms ..................................... 151
References .......................................... 151
WWW Addresses: Additional Reading ................... 152
10. Sample Identification and Imaging of Gas-Vent Mineral
Assemblages ............................................... 155
Paul A. Schroeder, Chris Fleisher, Glenn B. Stracher
10.1. Sample Identification and Imaging ................... 156
Introduction ........................................ 156
X-Ray Diffraction ................................... 157
Electron Microprobe ................................. 159
Short-Wave Infrared Spectroscopy .................... 163
Other Analytical Methods ............................ 165
Comments ............................................ 166
Acknowledgments ..................................... 166
Important Terms ..................................... 166
References .......................................... 169
WWW Addresses: Additional Reading ................... 171
11. Semivolatile Hydrocarbon Residues of Coal and Coal Tar .... 173
Stephen D. Emsbo-Mattingly, Scott A. Stout
11.1. Source Identification ............................... 174
Source Signatures ................................... 174
Fossil Fuels ........................................ 175
Carbonization ....................................... 175
Lines of Evidence ................................... 177
11.2. Sample Preparation .................................. 178
Collection .......................................... 178
Extraction .......................................... 178
Cleanup ............................................. 179
11.3. Sample Analysis ..................................... 180
Introduction ........................................ 180
Total Organic Carbon ................................ 180
Total Extractable Material .......................... 180
High-Resolution Hydrocarbon Scan .................... 181
Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons .................... 184
Saturated Hydrocarbons .............................. 188
Geochemical Biomarkers .............................. 191
11.4. Coal-Fire Residues .................................. 193
Semivolatile Hydrocarbons ........................... 193
Dominant Hydrocarbons ............................... 193
PAH Transformations ................................. 195
Saturated Hydrocarbon Residues ...................... 198
Biomarker Stability ................................. 201
Conclusions ......................................... 205
Acknowledgments ..................................... 205
Important Terms ..................................... 205
References .......................................... 207
12. Magnetic Signatures of Rocks and Soils Affected
by Burning Coal Seams ..................................... 209
Robert S. Sternberg
12.1. Magnetic Signatures ................................. 210
Introduction ........................................ 210
Field Work .......................................... 211
Magnetic Anomalies .................................. 212
Magnetic Properties ................................. 214
Discussion .......................................... 215
Acknowledgments ..................................... 216
Important Terms ..................................... 216
References .......................................... 216
WWW Addresses: Additional Reading ................... 218
13. Historical Use of Airborne Thermal Infrared Imaging
for Detecting and Studying Coal Fires ..................... 219
Daniel H. Vice
13.1. Airborne Thermal Infrared Imaging ................... 220
Introduction ........................................ 220
Thermal Infrared Imaging ............................ 220
Color Infrared Imaging .............................. 222
Early Use ........................................... 222
Later Use ........................................... 225
Depth Estimation .................................... 226
Discussion .......................................... 226
Acknowledgments ..................................... 227
Important Terms ..................................... 227
References .......................................... 227
WWW Addresses: Additional Reading ................... 229
14. Remote Sensing of Coal Fires .............................. 231
Anupma Prakash, Rudiger Gens
14.1. Remote Sensing ...................................... 232
Introduction ........................................ 232
14.2. Principles of Remote Sensing ........................ 233
Electromagnetic Energy and Spectrum ................. 233
Visible and Near-Infrared Regions ................... 234
Shortwave and Thermal Infrared Regions .............. 235
Microwave Region .................................... 237
14.3. Remote Sensing Platforms and Sensors ................ 239
Overview and Significance ........................... 239
14.4. Coal-Fire Parameter Extraction from Remote
Sensing Images ...................................... 242
Introduction ........................................ 242
Crack-Density Mapping ............................... 242
Reflection-Aureole Mapping .......................... 242
Land-Cover (Coal Area) Mapping ...................... 243
Fire-Area Estimation ................................ 244
Fire-Depth Estimation ............................... 245
Subsidence Mapping .................................. 246
Greenhouse-Gas Emissions ............................ 247
14.5. Time Series Analysis and Integrated
Interpretation in a GIS ............................. 248
Introduction ........................................ 248
Important Terms ..................................... 248
References .......................................... 250
WWW Addresses: Additional Reading ................... 252
15. The Policy Setting for Coal Fires: Indicators
for Government Action ..................................... 255
Karen M. McCurdy
15.1. The Policy Setting for Coal Fires ................... 256
Introduction ........................................ 256
Phases in the Policy Cycle .......................... 257
Policy Innovation in the Nineteenth Century ......... 259
Lessons for Coal Fires .............................. 264
Acknowledgments ..................................... 264
Important Terms ..................................... 265
References .......................................... 265
16. United States Bureau of Mines—Study and Control of
Fires in Abandoned Mines and Waste Banks .................. 267
Ann G. Kim
16.1. United States Bureau of Mines ....................... 268
Introduction ........................................ 268
Mine-Fire Control ................................... 268
16.2. Fire-Control Projects in Abandoned Mines and
Waste Banks ......................................... 271
Introduction ........................................ 271
Eastern Bituminous Region ........................... 271
Western United States and Alaska .................... 272
Anthracite Coalfields ............................... 273
16.3. Characteristics of Fires in Abandoned Coal Mines
and Waste Banks ..................................... 277
Introduction ........................................ 277
Initiation of Coal-Mine Fires ....................... 277
Geologic and Mining Factors ......................... 279
Natural Barriers .................................... 280
Discontinuous Fire Propagation ...................... 281
16.4. Locating Abandoned Mine Fires ....................... 282
Introduction ........................................ 282
Mine-Fire Diagnostics ............................... 282
Geophysical Methods ................................. 288
Temperature Monitoring .............................. 290
16.5. Controlling Abandoned Mine Fires .................... 293
Introduction ........................................ 293
Burnout Control ..................................... 293
Water Injection ..................................... 295
Foam Injection ...................................... 297
Cryogenic Slurry Injection .......................... 297
Summary ............................................. 299
Acknowledgments ..................................... 299
Important Terms ..................................... 300
References .......................................... 302
WWW Addresses: Additional Reading ................... 304
17. Smoldering Combustion Phenomena and Coal Fires ............ 307
Guillermo Rein
17.1. Smoldering and Coal Combustion ...................... 308
Introduction ........................................ 308
Overall Characteristics ............................. 308
Structure of a Smoldering Front ..................... 311
Smoldering-Coal Fires ............................... 312
Smoldering Wildfires ................................ 313
Acknowledgments ..................................... 314
Important Terms ..................................... 314
References .......................................... 314
WWW Addresses: Additional Reading ................... 315
18. Burning and Water Suppression of Smoldering Coal Fires
in Small-Scale Laboratory Experiments ..................... 317
Rory Hadden, Guillermo Rein
18.1. Burning and Suppression Experiments ................. 318
Introduction ........................................ 318
Suppression of Smoldering Coal Fires ................ 318
Small-Scale Experimental Work ....................... 320
Conclusions ......................................... 324
Acknowledgments ..................................... 324
Important Terms ..................................... 325
References .......................................... 325
WWW Addresses: Additional Reading ................... 326
19. Modern-Foam-Injection Technology for Extinguishing
Coal Fires ................................................ 327
Lisa LaFosse', Mark Cummins
19.1. Modern-Foam-Injection Technology .................... 328
Introduction ........................................ 328
New Method of Foam Generation ....................... 329
Experimental Fires .................................. 329
Fire Science ........................................ 331
Compressed Foam ..................................... 331
Quality Control ..................................... 331
New Developments .................................... 331
What the Future Holds ............................... 332
The Grand Finale .................................... 332
Important Terms ..................................... 332
References .......................................... 332
WWW Addresses: Additional Reading ................... 333
Author Index .................................................. 335
Subject Index ................................................. 343
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