Preface ...................................................... xiii
1 History, Operation, Performance, Design, Fabrication and
Theory ....................................................... 3
1.1 Scientific CCD History .................................. 3
1.2 Operation and Performance .............................. 22
1.2.1 Operation ....................................... 22
1.2.2 Performance Functions ........................... 25
1.2.3 Performance Specifications ...................... 36
1.3 Architecture, Design, Photolitography and
Fabrication ............................................ 37
1.3.1 Architecture .................................... 37
1.3.2 Design and Photolithography ..................... 42
1.3.3 Processing and Fabrication ...................... 51
1.4 CCD Theory ............................................. 61
1.4.1 MOS Capacitor ................................... 61
1.4.2 Surface-Channel Potential Well .................. 65
1.4.3 Buried-Channel Potential Well ................... 70
References ............................................. 92
Further Reading ........................................ 93
2 CCD Transfer Curves and Optimization ........................ 95
2.1 CCD Transfer Curves .................................... 95
2.1.1 CCD Performance ................................. 95
2.1.2 CCD Camera Performance .......................... 96
2.1.3 CCD Camera Calibration .......................... 97
2.2 Photon Transfer ........................................ 97
2.2.1 Photon Transfer Derivation ...................... 98
2.2.2 Photon Transfer Curve .......................... 101
2.2.3 Camera Gain Constants .......................... 105
2.2.4 Camera Gain Histogram .......................... 108
2.2.5 Camera Gain Uncertainty ........................ 110
2.2.6 Dynamic Range .................................. 113
2.2.7 Linearity ...................................... 117
2.2.8 Flat-Field Signal-to-Noise ..................... 120
2.2.9 Contrast Signal-to-Noise ....................... 121
2.2.10 High-Speed Photon Transfer Generation .......... 125
2.2.11 Photon Transfer Simulation ..................... 130
2.3 X-Ray Transfer ........................................ 131
2.3.1 X-ray Characteristics and Use .................. 131
2.3.2 Fe55 ........................................... 132
2.3.3 X-ray Images ................................... 139
2.3.4 X-ray Transfer ................................. 141
2.3.5 X-ray Histograms ............................... 143
2.3.6 Fano-Noise-Limited Performance ................. 147
2.3.7 Cadmium X Rays ................................. 151
2.4 QE Transfer ........................................... 151
2.5 CCD Clock and Bias Optimization ....................... 156
2.5.1 Clock and Bias ................................. 156
2.5.2 Set-point Transfer Curves ...................... 160
References ............................................ 165
3 Charge Generation .......................................... 167
3.1 Charge Generation ..................................... 167
3.2 QE Formulas ........................................... 170
3.2.1 Backside Illumination .......................... 170
3.2.2 Frontside Illumination ......................... 173
3.2.3 Miscellaneous QE Losses ........................ 174
3.2.4 Monte Carlo Simulation ......................... 177
3.3 Frontside Illumination ................................ 178
3.3.1 Phosphor Coatings .............................. 178
3.3.2 Virtual Phase .................................. 183
3.3.3 Open Pinned Phase .............................. 188
3.3.4 Thin Gate ...................................... 190
3.3.5 Transparent Gate ............................... 194
3.3.6 Poly Hole Gate ................................. 194
3.4 Backside Illumination ................................. 195
3.4.1 Thinning ....................................... 195
3.4.2 Quantum Efficiency Hysteresis .................. 196
3.4.3 Accumulation and QE Pinning .................... 199
3.4.4 Self-Accumulation .............................. 201
3.4.5 Accumulation Theory ............................ 214
3.4.6 Passive Accumulation ........................... 227
3.4.7 Active accumulation ............................ 256
3.4.8 Antireflection coatings ........................ 266
References ............................................ 268
4 Charge Collection .......................................... 273
4.1 Charge Collection ..................................... 273
4.2 Well Capacity ......................................... 274
4.2.1 Bloomed Full Well .............................. 275
4.2.2 Surface Full Well .............................. 277
4.2.3 Optimum Full Well .............................. 277
4.2.4 Clocking Modes ................................. 280
4.2.5 Full Well Transfer ............................. 280
4.2.6 Full Well Data ................................. 283
4.2.7 Self-induced Emission and Thermionic
Emission ....................................... 289
4.2.8 Clocked Antiblooming ........................... 293
4.2.9 Antiblooming Structures ........................ 300
4.2.10 High-Speed Erasure ............................. 305
4.2.11 Window Clocking ................................ 310
4.2.12 Multipinned Phase (MPP) ........................ 310
4.3 Fixed-pattern Noise ................................... 318
4.3.1 Pixel Nonuniformity ............................ 318
4.3.2 Flat Fielding .................................. 321
4.3.3 Fixed-pattern Sources .......................... 325
4.4 Charge Diffusion ...................................... 332
4.4.1 Charge Diffusion ............................... 332
4.4.2 Measurement and Modeling Techniques ............ 338
4.4.3 Aliasing and Beating ........................... 373
References ............................................ 383
5 Charge Transfer ............................................ 387
5.1 Charge Transfer ....................................... 387
5.2 Transfer Mechanisms ................................... 390
5.2.1 Diffusion Drift ................................ 393
5.2.2 Self-induced Drift ............................. 395
5.2.3 Fringing Field Drift ........................... 396
5.2.4 High-Speed Data ................................ 400
5.2.5 Clock Propagation .............................. 405
5.2.6 Substrate Bounce ............................... 408
5.3 CTE Measurement Techniques ............................ 418
5.3.1 X-ray Transfer ................................. 418
5.3.2 Extended Pixel Edge Response (EPER) ............ 423
5.3.3 First Pixel Edge Response ...................... 429
5.3.4 Pocket Pumping ................................. 430
5.3.5 Charge Injection ............................... 433
5.4 Traps ................................................. 433
5.4.1 Design Traps ................................... 434
5.4.2 Process traps .................................. 439
5.4.3 Bulk Traps ..................................... 453
5.4.4 Radiation-induced Traps ........................ 466
5.4.5 Proportional and Fixed Loss .................... 466
5.4.6 Fat-zero ....................................... 469
5.4.7 Notch Channel CCD .............................. 472
5.5 Transfer Power ........................................ 476
5.5.1 Charge Motion Power ............................ 478
5.5.2 Potential Power ................................ 482
5.5.3 Reactive Power ................................. 482
References ............................................ 486
6 Charge Measurement ......................................... 489
6.1 Charge Measurement .................................... 489
6.2 Output Amplifier Characteristics ...................... 490
6.2.1 Operation ...................................... 490
6.2.2 Voltage Gain ................................... 498
6.2.3 Loading ........................................ 499
6.2.4 Output Impedance ............................... 503
6.2.5 Time Response .................................. 504
6.2.6 Frequency Response ............................. 504
6.2.7 Bias ........................................... 507
6.2.8 Sensitivity .................................... 509
6.2.9 Linearity ...................................... 516
6.2.10 Temperature Characteristics .................... 519
6.2.11 Lightly Doped Drain ............................ 520
6.2.12 Amplifier Luminescence ......................... 523
6.2.13 Multistage Amplifiers .......................... 527
6.2.14 Power Consumption .............................. 531
6.3 Output Amplifier Noise ................................ 532
6.3.1 Johnson Noise .................................. 532
6.3.2 Reset Noise .................................... 537
6.3.3 White Noise .................................... 541
6.3.4 Flicker Noise .................................. 543
6.3.5 Shot Noise ..................................... 553
6.3.6 Contact and Popcorn Noise ...................... 555
6.3.7 Output Amplifier Noise Equation ................ 555
6.4 Correlated Double Sampling ............................ 556
6.4.1 Correlated Double Sampling Circuit Elements .... 557
6.4.2 Correlated Double Sampling Circuits ............ 558
6.4.3 Camera Gain Constant ........................... 561
6.4.4 Correlated Double Sampling Transfer Function ... 563
6.5 Dual Slope Processor .................................. 578
6.5.1 Dual Slope Circuit Elements .................... 578
6.5.2 Dual Slope Transfer Function ................... 579
6.6 Remnant Signal and Noise .............................. 582
6.6.1 Remnant Signal ................................. 582
6.6.2 Remnant Noise .................................. 583
6.7 Skipper Amplifier ..................................... 585
6.7.1 Introduction ................................... 585
6.7.2 Operation ...................................... 586
6.7.3 Performance .................................... 588
6.7.4 Design ......................................... 592
6.7.5 Signal-to-Noise (Extended Images) .............. 595
6.7.6 Signal-to-Noise (Point Images) ................. 599
References ............................................ 602
7 Noise Sources .............................................. 605
7.1 On-chip Noise Sources ................................. 605
7.1.1 Dark Current ................................... 605
7.1.2 Spurious Charge ................................ 649
7.1.3 Fat-zero ....................................... 654
7.1.4 Transfer Noise ................................. 656
7.1.5 Residual Image ................................. 657
7.1.6 Luminescence ................................... 665
7.1.7 Cosmic Rays and Radiation Interference ......... 670
7.1.8 Excess Charge .................................. 674
7.1.9 Cosmetic Defects ............................... 678
7.1.10 Blem Spillover ................................ 679
7.1.11 Seam Noise .................................... 680
7.2 Off-chip Noise Sources ................................ 684
7.2.1 Light Leak ..................................... 684
7.2.2 Preamplifier Noise ............................. 684
7.2.3 ADC Quantizing Noise ........................... 686
7.2.4 Clock-Jitter Noise ............................. 697
7.2.5 Electromagnetic Interference ................... 699
7.2.6 Grounding ...................................... 706
7.2.7 Image Cross Talk ............................... 711
7.2.8 Noise-Reduction Techniques ..................... 714
7.2.9 Noise-Reduction Summary ........................ 716
References ............................................ 719
8 Damage ..................................................... 721
8.1 Radiation Damage ...................................... 721
8.1.1 Introduction ................................... 721
8.1.2 Near-Earth Radiation Environment ............... 723
8.1.3 Radiation Units ................................ 726
8.1.4 Transient Events ............................... 736
8.1.5 Ionization Damage Equivalence .................. 749
8.1.6 Ionization Damage .............................. 750
8.1.7 Clock and Bias for Minimum Ionization Damage
and Control .................................... 759
8.1.8 Ionization Damage Measurements ................. 761
8.1.9 Bulk Damage .................................... 773
8.2 Electrical, Thermal and ESD Damage .................... 837
8.2.1 Electrical Damage .............................. 837
8.2.2 Thermal Damage ................................. 838
8.2.3 Electrostatic Discharge (ESD) Damage ........... 839
References ............................................ 841
Appendixes .................................................... 847
Glossary of CCD Terms ......................................... 871
Index ......................................................... 899
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