Preface ........................................................ xi
Chapter 1. Optics Overview ...................................... 1
1.1 The Electromagnetic Spectrum .............................. 1
1.2 Light Wave Propagation .................................... 3
1.3 Snell's Law of Refraction ................................. 5
1.4 The Action of Simple Lenses and Prisms on Wave Fronts ..... 8
1.5 Interference and Diffraction ............................. 11
1.6 The Photoelectric Effect ................................. 16
Bibliography ................................................... 17
Exercises ...................................................... 18
Chapter 2. Gaussian Optics: The Cardinal Points ................ 21
2.1 Introduction ............................................. 21
2.2 Cardinal Points of an Optical System ..................... 22
2.3 Image Position and Size .................................. 24
2.4 A Collection of Imagery Equations ........................ 30
2.5 Optical Systems Not Immersed in Air ...................... 31
Bibliography ................................................... 32
Exercises ...................................................... 32
Chapter 3. Paraxial Optics and Calculations .................... 35
3.1 Refraction of a Light Ray at a Single Surface ............ 35
3.2 The Paraxial Region ...................................... 37
3.3 Paraxial Raytracing through Several Surfaces ............. 39
3.4 Calculation of the Focal Points and Principal Points ..... 44
3.5 The "Thin Lens" .......................................... 47
3.6 Mirrors .................................................. 49
Bibliography ................................................... 51
Exercises ...................................................... 51
Chapter 4. Optical System Considerations ....................... 53
4.1 Systems of Separated Components .......................... 53
4.2 The Optical Invariant .................................... 58
4.3 Matrix Optics ............................................ 63
4.4 The y-ybar Diagram ....................................... 64
4.5 The Scheimpflug Condition ................................ 65
4.6 Summary of Sign Conventions .............................. 67
Bibliography ................................................... 67
Exercises ...................................................... 68
Chapter 5. The Primary Aberrations ............................. 71
5.1 Introduction ............................................. 71
5.2 The Aberration Polynomial and the Seidel Aberrations ..... 72
5.3 Chromatic Aberrations .................................... 83
5.4 The Effect of Lens Shape and Stop Position on the
Aberrations .............................................. 84
5.5 Aberration Variation with Aperture and Field ............. 88
5.6 Optical Path Difference (Wave Front Aberration) .......... 90
5.7 Aberration Correction and Residuals ...................... 91
5.8 Ray Intercept Curves and the "Orders" of Aberrations ..... 94
5.9 The Relationships between Longitudinal Aberration,
Transverse Aberration, Wave-Front Aberration (OPD),
and Angular Aberration ................................... 99
Bibliography .................................................. 102
Exercises ..................................................... 102
Chapter 6. Third-Order Aberration Theory and Calculation ...... 105
6.1 Introduction ............................................ 105
6.2 Paraxial Raystracing .................................... 107
6.3 Third-Order Aberrations: Surface Contributions .......... 108
6.4 Third-Order Aberrations: Thin Lenses; Stop Shift
Equations ............................................... 113
6.5 Sample Calculations ..................................... 117
Bibliography .................................................. 122
Chapter 7. Prism and Mirror Systems ........................... 123
7.1 Introduction ............................................ 123
7.2 Dispersing Prisms ....................................... 123
7.3 The "Thin" Prism ........................................ 125
7.4 Minimum Deviation ....................................... 126
7.5 The Achromatic Prism and the Direct Vision Prism ........ 126
7.6 Total Internal Reflection ............................... 128
7.7 Reflection from a Plane Surface ......................... 129
7.8 Plane Parallel Plates ................................... 132
7.9 The Right-Angle Prism ................................... 136
7.10 The Roof Prism .......................................... 139
7.11 Erecting Prism Systems .................................. 141
7.12 Inversion Prisms ........................................ 144
7.13 The Penta Prism ......................................... 145
7.14 Rhomboids and Beamsplitters ............................. 146
7.15 Plane Mirrors ........................................... 149
7.16 The Design of Prism and Reflector Systems ............... 149
7.17 Analysis of Fabrication Errors .......................... 154
Bibliography .................................................. 155
Chapter 8. Characteristics of the Human Eye ................... 157
8.1 Introduction ............................................ 157
8.2 The Structure of the Eye ................................ 158
8.3 Characteristics of the Eye .............................. 160
8.4 Defects of the Eye ...................................... 168
Bibliography .................................................. 170
Experiments ................................................... 171
Exercises ..................................................... 172
Chapter 9. Stops, Apertures, Pupils and Diffraction ........... 175
9.1 Introduction ............................................ 175
9.2 The Aperture Stop and Pupils ............................ 176
9.3 The Field Stop .......................................... 177
9.4 Vignetting .............................................. 177
9.5 Glare Stops, Cold Stops, and Baffles .................... 179
9.6 The Telecentric Stop .................................... 182
9.7 Apertures and Image Illumination—/-Number and Cosine-
Fourth .................................................. 183
9.8 Depth of Focus .......................................... 186
9.9 Diffraction Effects of Apertures ........................ 188
9.10 Resolution of Optical Systems ........................... 192
9.11 Diffraction of a Gaussian (Laser) Beam .................. 195
9.12 The Fourier Transform Lens and Spatial Filtering ........ 199
Bibliography .................................................. 200
Exercises ..................................................... 201
Chapter 10. Optical Materials ................................. 205
10.1 Reflection, Absorption, Dispersion ...................... 205
10.2 Optical Glass ........................................... 210
10.3 Special Glasses ......................................... 216
10.4 Crystalline Materials ................................... 219
10.5 Plastic Optical Materials ............................... 221
10.6 Absorption Filters ...................................... 224
10.7 Diffusing Materials and Projection Screens .............. 227
10.8 Polarizing Materials .................................... 230
10.9 Cements and Liquids ..................................... 232
Bibliography .................................................. 233
Exercises ..................................................... 234
Chapter 11. Optical Coatings .................................. 237
11.1 Dielectric Reflection and Interference Filters .......... 237
11.2 Reflectors .............................................. 247
11.3 Reticles ................................................ 250
Bibliography .................................................. 251
Exercises ..................................................... 252
Chapter 12. Principles of Radiometry and Photometry ........... 253
12.1 Introduction ............................................ 253
12.2 The Inverse Square Law; Intensity ....................... 254
12.3 Radiance and Lambert's Law .............................. 255
12.4 Radiation into a Hemisphere ............................. 256
12.5 Irradiance Produced by a Diffuse Source ................. 257
12.6 The Radiometry of Images ................................ 259
12.7 Spectral Radiometry ..................................... 263
12.8 Blackbody Radiation ..................................... 264
12.9 Photometry .............................................. 270
12.10 Illumination Devices .................................... 277
Bibliography .................................................. 282
Exercises ..................................................... 283
Chapter 13. Optical System Layout ............................. 287
13.1 Telescopes, Afocal Systems .............................. 287
13.2 Field Lenses and Relay Systems .......................... 291
13.3 Exit Pupils, the Eye, and Resolution .................... 293
13.4 The Simple Microscope or Magnifier ...................... 303
13.5 The Compound Microscope ................................. 305
13.6 Rangefinders ............................................ 307
13.7 Radiometer and Detector Optics .......................... 311
13.8 Fiber Optics ............................................ 318
13.9 Anamorphic Systems ...................................... 323
13.10 Variable-Power (Zoom) Systems ........................... 328
13.11 The Diffractive Surface ................................. 333
Bibliography .................................................. 334
Exercises ..................................................... 334
Chapter 14. Case Studies in System Layout ..................... 339
14.1 Introduction ............................................ 339
14.2 Telephoto Lens .......................................... 340
14.3 Retrofocus Lens ......................................... 341
14.4 Relay System ............................................ 342
14.5 Aperture Stop for Relay System of Sec. 14.4 ............. 343
14.6 Short Range Telescope ................................... 344
14.7 Field Lens for Sec. 14.6 ................................ 347
14.8 Raytrace of Sec. 14.7 ................................... 348
14.9 125 Power Microscope .................................... 349
14.10 Brueke 125 x Magnifier .................................. 350
14.11 A 4 x Mechanically Compensated Zoom Lens ................ 351
14.12 Doing System Layout by Computer ......................... 356
14.13 An Athermalized Mid-IR System with an External Cold
Stop .................................................... 357
Chapter 15. Wave-Front Aberrations and MTF .................... 365
15.1 Introduction ............................................ 365
15.2 Optical Path Difference: Focus Shift .................... 366
15.3 Optical Path Difference: Spherical Aberration ........... 367
15.4 Aberration Tolerances ................................... 373
15.5 Image Energy Distribution (Geometric) ................... 379
15.6 Spread Functions—Point and Line ......................... 380
15.7 Geometric Spot Size Due to Spherical Aberration ......... 381
15.8 The Modulation Transfer Function ........................ 385
15.9 Square-Wave vs. Sine-Wave Targets ....................... 391
15.10 Special Modulation Transfer Functions: Diffraction-
Limited Systems ......................................... 392
15.11 Radial Energy Distribution .............................. 401
15.12 Point Spread Functions for the Primary Aberrations ...... 402
Bibliography .................................................. 407
Exercises ..................................................... 408
Chapter 16. The Basics of Lens Design ......................... 409
16.1 Introduction 4 .......................................... 409
16.2 The Simple Meniscus Camera Lens ......................... 411
16.3 The Symmetrical Principle ............................... 417
16.4 Achromatic Telescope Objectives (Thin-Lens Theory) ...... 417
16.5 Achromatic Telescope Objectives (Design Forms) .......... 421
16.6 The Diffractive Surface in Lens Design .................. 430
16.7 The Cooke Triplet Anastigmat: Third-Order Theory ........ 435
16.8 Automatic Design by Electronic Computer ................. 446
16.9 Practical Considerations ................................ 451
Bibliography .................................................. 453
Exercises ..................................................... 454
Chapter 17. Lens Design for Eyepieces, Microscopes, Cameras,
etc. .............................................. 457
17.1 Telescope Systems and Eyepieces ......................... 457
17.2 Microscope Objectives ................................... 466
17.3 Photographic Objectives ................................. 473
17.4 Condenser Systems ....................................... 494
17.5 Aberration Characteristics of Simple Lenses ............. 498
Bibliography .................................................. 501
Exercises ..................................................... 501
Chapter 18. Design of Mirror and Catadioptric Systems ......... 503
18.1 Reflecting Systems ...................................... 503
18.2 The Spherical Mirror .................................... 503
18.3 The Paraboloid Reflector ................................ 506
18.4 The Ellipsoid and Hyperboloid ........................... 507
18.5 Equations for Two-Mirror Systems ........................ 508
18.6 Conic Section through the Origin ........................ 513
18.7 The Schmidt System ...................................... 515
18.8 The Mangin Mirror ....................................... 517
18.9 The Bouwers (Maksutov) System ........................... 519
18.10 The Rapid Estimation of Blur Sizes for Simple Optical
Systems ................................................. 522
Bibliography .................................................. 526
Exercises ..................................................... 527
Chapter 19. Selected Lens Designs, Analyzed and Annotated ..... 529
19.1 Introduction ............................................ 529
19.2 Lens Data Tables ........................................ 529
19.3 Raytrace Figures ........................................ 530
19.4 A Note Re the Modulation Transfer Function .............. 531
19.5 Index to the Lenses ..................................... 532
19.6 The Lenses .............................................. 534
Bibliography .................................................. 597
Chapter 20. The Practice of Optical Engineering ............... 599
20.1 Optical Manufacture ..................................... 599
20.2 Optical Specifications and Tolerances ................... 610
20.3 Optical Mounting Techniques ............................. 628
20.4 Optical Laboratory Practice ............................. 633
20.5 Tolerance Budget Example ................................ 652
Bibliography .................................................. 656
Chapter 21. Getting the Most Out of "Stock" Lenses ............ 659
21.1 Introduction ............................................ 659
21.2 Stock Lenses ............................................ 659
21.3 Some Simple Measurements ................................ 661
21.4 System Mock-up and Test ................................. 665
21.5 Aberration Considerations ............................... 668
21.6 How to Use a Singlet (Single Element) ................... 671
21.7 How to Use a Cemented Doublet ........................... 675
21.8 Combinations of Stock Lenses ............................ 676
21.9 Sources ................................................. 684
Appendix A. Raytracing and Aberration Calculation ............. 687
Appendix B. Some Standard Dimensions .......................... 707
Glossary ..................................................... 709
Index ......................................................... 733
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