Preface ........................................................ xi
Acknowledgments .............................................. xiii
Authors ........................................................ xv
List of Abbreviations ........................................ xvii
Section I: Fat-soluble vitamins
Chapter 1. Vitamin A and carotenoids ........................... 3
1.1. Review ................................................ 3
1.2. Properties ............................................ 8
1.2.1. Chemistry ..................................... 8
1.2.1.1. General properties .................. 8
1.2.1.2. Spectral properties ................ 14
1.2.2. Stability .................................... 16
1.2.3. Bioavailability .............................. 23
1.3. Methods .............................................. 23
1.3.1. The Carr-Price colorimetric method ........... 27
1.3.2. Advances in vitamin A and carotenoid
analysis ..................................... 28
1.3.2.1. Spectroscopic methods .............. 28
1.3.2.2. High performance liquid
chromatography ..................... 28
1.3.3. Method applications .......................... 59
1.3.3.1. Vitamin A and other retinoids ...... 59
1.3.3.2. Carotenoids ........................ 61
1.4. Method protocols ..................................... 65
References ................................................. 68
Chapter 2. Vitamin D .......................................... 83
2.1. Review ............................................... 83
2.2. Properties ........................................... 86
2.2.1. Chemistry .................................... 86
2.2.1.1. General properties ................. 86
2.2.1.2. Spectral properties ................ 86
2.2.2. Stability .................................... 86
2.2.3. Bioavailability .............................. 90
2.3. Methods .............................................. 90
2.3.1. General approach ............................. 90
2.3.2. Regulatory and handbook methods .............. 91
2.3.2.1. AOAC International ................. 94
2.3.2.2. European Committee for
Standardization .................... 95
2.3.2.3. International Dairy Federation ..... 95
2.3.3. High performance liquid chromatography ....... 95
2.3.3.1. Extraction procedures for
analysis of vitamin D by
liquid chromatography .............. 95
2.3.3.2. Chromatography parameters ......... 104
2.3.3.3. Internal standards ................ 107
2.4. Method protocols .................................... 107
References ................................................ 112
Chapter 3. Vitamin E: tocopherols and tocotrienols ........... 119
3.1. Review .............................................. 119
3.2. Properties .......................................... 125
3.2.1. Chemistry ................................... 125
3.2.1.1. General properties ................ 125
3.2.1.2. Nomenclature rules ................ 127
3.2.1.3. Spectral properties ............... 131
3.2.2. Stability ................................... 131
3.2.3. Biological activity ......................... 133
3.3. Methods ............................................. 135
3.3.1. General approach ............................ 135
3.3.2. Regulatory and handbook methods ............. 136
3.3.2.1. AOAC International ................ 136
3.3.2.2. American Oil Chemists Society ..... 140
3.3.2.3. European Committee for
Standardization ................... 141
3.3.3. Advances in analysis of the tocopherols
and tocotrienols ............................ 141
3.3.3.1. Gas chromatography ................ 141
3.3.3.2. High-performance liquid
chromatography .................... 142
3.4. Method protocols .................................... 177
References ................................................ 179
Chapter 4. Vitamin К ......................................... 193
4.1. Review .............................................. 193
4.2. Properties .......................................... 197
4.2.1. Chemistry ................................... 197
4.2.1.1. General properties ................ 197
4.2.1.2. Spectral properties ............... 198
4.2.2. Stability ................................... 200
4.3. Methods ............................................. 200
4.3.1. General approach ............................ 200
4.3.2. Regulatory and handbook methods ............. 202
4.3.3. Advances in analysis of vitamin К ........... 205
4.3.3.1. Spectroscopic and
electrochemical methods ........... 205
4.3.3.2. High performance liquid
chromatography .................... 205
4.4. Method protocols .................................... 218
References ................................................ 222
Section II: Water-soluble vitamins
Chapter 5. Ascorbic acid: vitamin С .......................... 231
5.1. Review .............................................. 231
5.2. Properties .......................................... 236
5.2.1. Chemistry ................................... 236
5.2.1.1. General properties ................ 236
5.2.1.2. Spectral properties ............... 239
5.2.2. Stability ................................... 239
5.3. Methods ............................................. 240
5.3.1. Extraction procedures ....................... 240
5.3.2. Classical approaches to vitamin С
analysis .................................... 243
5.3.2.1. Oxidation-reduction methods ....... 243
5.3.2.2. Derivatization methods ............ 246
5.3.2.3. Enzymatic methods ................. 248
5.3.3. Advances in the analysis of vitamin С ....... 249
5.3.3.1. Spectroscopic and
electrochemical detection
combined with flow injection
and sequential injection
analysis .......................... 249
5.3.3.2. Capillary electrophoresis ......... 250
5.3.3.3. Liquid chromatography ............. 251
5.4. Status of vitamin С analysis ........................ 273
5.5. Method protocols .................................... 274
References ................................................ 280
Chapter 6. Thiamin ........................................... 291
6.1. Review .............................................. 291
6.2. Properties .......................................... 294
6.2.1. Chemistry ................................... 294
6.2.1.1. General properties ................ 294
6.2.1.2. Spectral properties ............... 295
6.2.2. Stability ........................... 297
6.3. Methods ............................................. 298
6.3.1. Classical approaches to analysis of
thiamin ..................................... 298
6.3.1.1. Chemical .......................... 298
6.3.2.1. Microbiological ................... 303
6.3.2. Advances in the analysis of thiamin ......... 304
6.3.2.1. Spectroscopic, electrochemical,
and capillary electrophoretic
methods ........................... 304
6.3.2.2. Liquid chromatography ............. 304
6.4. Method protocols .................................... 316
References ................................................ 318
Chapter 7. Riboflavin ........................................ 325
7.1. Review .............................................. 325
7.2. Properties .......................................... 329
7.2.1. Chemistry ................................... 329
7.2.1.1. General properties ................ 329
7.2.1.2. Spectral properties ............... 330
7.2.2. Stability ................................... 330
7.3. Methods ............................................. 334
7.3.1. Classical approaches to analysis of
riboflavin .................................. 334
7.3.1.1. Fluorometric ...................... 334
7.3.1.2. Microbiological ................... 339
7.3.2. Advances in the analysis of riboflavin ...... 340
7.3.2.1. Spectroscopic methods ............. 340
7.3.2.2. Capillary electrophoresis ......... 340
7.3.2.3. Liquid chromatography ............. 340
7.4. Method protocols .................................... 353
References ................................................ 354
Chapter 8. Niacin ............................................ 361
8.1. Review .............................................. 361
8.2. Properties .......................................... 363
8.2.1. Chemistry ................................... 363
8.2.1.1. General properties ................ 365
8.2.1.2. Spectral properties ............... 365
8.2.2. Stability ................................... 366
8.2.3. Bioavailability ............................. 368
8.3. Methods ............................................. 370
8.3.1. Chemical .................................... 370
8.3.1.1. Sample preparation ................ 370
8.3.2. Microbiological ............................. 375
8.3.3. Advances in the analysis of niacin .......... 376
8.3.3.1. Capillary electrophoresis,
chemiluminescence, and mass
spectrometry ...................... 376
8.3.3.2. High performance liquid
chromatography .................... 376
8.4. Method protocols .................................... 386
References ................................................ 394
Chapter 9. Vitamin B6 ........................................ 401
9.1. Review .............................................. 401
9.2. Properties .......................................... 403
9.2.1. Chemistry ................................... 403
9.2.1.1. General properties ................ 403
9.2.1.2. Spectral properties ............... 408
9.2.2. Stability ................................... 408
9.2.3. Bioavailability ............................. 409
9.3. Methods ............................................. 411
9.3.1. Microbiological ............................. 411
9.3.2. Advances in the analysis of vitamin B6 ...... 414
9.3.2.1. Spectroscopic, electrochemical,
and capillary electrophoresis
methods ........................... 414
9.3.2.2. Liquid chromatography ............. 414
9.4. Method protocols .................................... 430
References ................................................ 435
Chapter 10. Folate and folic acid ............................. 443
10.1. Review .............................................. 443
10.2. Properties .......................................... 447
10.2.1. Chemistry ................................... 447
10.2.1.1. General properties ................ 447
10.2.1.2. Spectral properties ............... 453
10.2.1.3. Stability ......................... 453
10.2.1.4. Bioavailability ................... 456
10.3. The |ig dietary folate equivalents .................. 457
10.4. Methods ............................................. 457
10.4.1. Microbiological ............................. 459
10.4.1.1. Folate assay organisms ............ 459
10.4.1.2. Extraction procedures ............. 460
10.4.1.3. Modification of traditional
microbiological assays for
folate ............................ 464
10.4.1.4. Recommendations for the
microbiological assay of
folate ............................ 464
10.4.1.5. АОAC International Official
methods ........................... 468
10.4.2. Ligand-binding assays ....................... 469
10.4.3. Advances in the analysis of folate and
folic acid .................................. 471
10.4.3.1. High performance liquid
chromatography and high
performance liquid chromato-
graphy-mass spectrometry .......... 471
10.4.3.2. Optical biosensor-based
immunoassays ...................... 490
10.4.3.3. Status of folic acid and folate
analysis ........................... 491
10.5. Method protocols ..................................... 491
References ................................................. 493
Chapter 11. Vitamin B12 ....................................... 507
11.1. Review .............................................. 507
11.2. Properties .......................................... 511
11.2.1. Chemistry ................................... 511
11.2.1.1. General properties ................ 511
11.2.1.2. Spectral properties ............... 514
11.2.2. Stability ................................... 514
11.2.3. Bioavailability ............................. 515
11.3. Methods ............................................. 515
11.3.1. АОAC International methods (Lactobacillus
delbrueckii) ................................ 515
11.3.2. Radio-ligand binding assays ................. 518
11.3.3. Advances in the analysis of vitamin B12 ..... 520
11.3.3.1. Spectroscopic and chemi-
luminescence methods .............. 520
11.3.3.2. Capillary electrophoresis ......... 521
11.3.3.3. High performance liquid
chromatography and high
performance liquid chromato-
graphy-mass spectrometry .......... 521
11.3.3.4. Optical biosensor protein-
binding assay ..................... 528
11.4. Method protocols .................................... 528
References ................................................ 530
Chapter 12. Biotin ............................................ 535
12.1. Review .............................................. 536
12.2. Properties .......................................... 536
12.2.1. Chemistry ................................... 536
12.2.1.1. General properties ................ 539
12.2.1.2. Spectral properties ............... 540
12.2.2. Stability ................................... 540
12.2.3. Bioavailability ............................. 542
12.3. Methods ............................................. 542
12.3.1. Microbiological methods ..................... 543
12.3.2. Avidin-binding assays ....................... 544
12.3.3. Advances in analysis of biotin .............. 545
12.3.3.1. Liquid chromatography ............. 545
12.3.3.2. Optical biosensor-based
immunoassays ...................... 554
References ................................................ 554
Chapter 13. Pantothenic acid .................................. 561
13.1. Review .............................................. 561
13.2. Properties .......................................... 564
13.2.1. Chemistry ................................... 564
13.2.1.1. General properties ................ 564
13.2.1.2. Spectral properties ............... 566
13.2.2. Stability ................................... 566
13.2.3. Bioavailability ............................. 567
13.3. Methods ............................................. 568
13.3.1. Microbiological assay of pantothenic acid ... 568
13.3.2. Radioimmunoassay and enzyme-linked
immunosorbent assay ......................... 570
13.3.3. Advances in the analysis of pantothenic
acid ........................................ 570
13.3.3.1. Capillary electrophoresis ......... 574
13.3.3.2. Gas chromatography and gas
chromatography-mass
spectrometry ...................... 574
13.3.3.3. Liquid chromatography and
liquid chromatography-mass
spectrometry ...................... 574
13.3.3.4. Optical biosensor immunoassay ..... 576
References ................................................ 576
Chapter 14. Multianalyte methods for analysis of the fat-
and water-soluble vitamins ........................ 583
14.1. Fat-soluble vitamins ................................ 583
14.1.1. Butter, margarine, and fats and oils ........ 584
14.1.2. Milk and infant formula ..................... 598
14.1.3. Pharmaceuticals ............................. 602
14.1.4. Serum and tissues ........................... 603
14.2. Water-soluble vitamins .............................. 607
14.2.1. Extraction procedures for multianalyte
methods ..................................... 607
14.2.2. Extractions suitable for the simultaneous
analysis of thiamin, riboflavin, and
vitamin B6 .................................. 615
14.2.3. Milk and infant formulas .................... 615
14.2.4. Liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry
methods for multi-water-soluble vitamin
analysis .................................... 616
14.2.5. Multivitamins and premixes .................. 618
References ................................................ 621
Index ......................................................... 629
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