Preface ........................................................ ix
Acknowledgements ............................................. xiii
Part I Introduction to image processing ......................... l
1 Introduction ................................................ 3
1.1 Imaging systems ......................................... 3
1.2 Objects and images ...................................... 7
1.3 The digital image processing system .................... 10
1.4 Applications of digital image processing ............... 13
1.5 Exercises .............................................. 15
2 Imaging systems ............................................ 16
2.1 The human visual pathway ............................... 16
2.2 Photographic film ...................................... 20
2.3 Other sensors .......................................... 26
2.4 Digitizing an image .................................... 27
2.5 The quality of a digital image ......................... 34
2.6 Color images ........................................... 40
2.7 Computer-based activities .............................. 43
2.8 Exercises .............................................. 45
3 Medical images obtained with ionizing radiation ............ 47
3.1 Medical imaging modalities ............................. 47
3.2 Images from x-rays ..................................... 48
3.3 Images from y-rays ..................................... 77
3.4 Dose and risk .......................................... 84
3.5 Computer-based activities .............................. 86
3.6 Exercises ............................................. 87
4 Medical images obtained with non-ionizing radiation ........ 90
4.1 Ultrasound imaging ..................................... 91
4.2 Magnetic resonance imaging ............................ 100
4.3 Picture archiving and communication systems (PACS) .... 115
Computer-based activities ................................. 118
Exercises ................................................. 120
Part II Fundamental concepts of image processing .............. 121
5 Fundamentals of digital image processing .................. 123
5.1 The gray-level histogram .............................. 123
5.2 Histogram transformations and look-up tables .......... 135
Computer-based activities ................................. 148
Exercises ................................................. 151
6 Image enhancement in the spatial domain ................... 155
6.1 Algebraic operations .................................. 156
6.2 Logical (Boolean) operations .......................... 159
6.3 Geometric operations .................................. 162
6.4 Convolution-based operations .......................... 170
Computer-based activities ................................. 189
Exercises ................................................. 191
7 Image enhancement in the frequency domain ................. 194
7.1 The Fourier domain .................................... 195
7.2 The Fourier transform ................................. 198
7.3 Properties of the Fourier transform ................... 205
7.4 Sampling .............................................. 207
7.5 Cross-correlation and autocorrelation ................. 217
7.6 Imaging systems-point spread function and optical
transfer function ..................................... 219
7.7 Frequency domain filters .............................. 223
7.8 Tomographic reconstruction ............................ 231
Computer-based activities ................................. 237
Exercises ................................................. 243
8 Image restoration ......................................... 246
8.1 Image degradation ..................................... 246
8.2 Noise ................................................. 247
8.3 Noise-reduction filters ............................... 252
8.4 Blurring .............................................. 258
8.5 Modeling image degradation ............................ 260
8.6 Geometric degradations ................................ 263
Computer-based activities ................................. 268
Exercises ................................................. 269
Part III Image analysis ....................................... 271
9 Morphological image processing ............................ 273
9.1 Mathematical morphology ............................... 273
9.2 Morphological operators ............................... 275
9.3 Extension to grayscale images ......................... 295
Computer-based activities ................................. 301
Exercises ................................................. 305
10 Image segmentation ........................................ 309
10.1 What is segmentation? ................................ 309
10.2 Thresholding ......................................... 311
10.3 Region-based methods ................................. 321
10.4 Boundary-based methods ............................... 324
10.5 Other methods ........................................ 326
Computer-based activities ................................. 335
Exercises ................................................. 338
11 Feature recognition and classification .................... 339
11.1 Object recognition and classification ................ 340
11.2 Connected components labeling ........................ 340
11.3 Features ............................................. 342
11.4 Object recognition and classification ................ 348
11.5 Statistical classification ........................... 351
11.6 Structural/syntactic classification .................. 364
11.7 Applications in medical image analysis ............... 364
Computer-based activities ................................. 367
Exercises ................................................. 367
12 Three-dimensional visualization ........................... 369
12.1 Image visualization .................................. 369
12.2 Surface rendering .................................... 370
12.3 Volume rendering ..................................... 374
12.4 Virtual reality ...................................... 376
Computer-based activities ................................. 377
Exercises ................................................. 377
Part IV Medical applications and ongoing developments ......... 379
13 Medical applications of imaging ........................... 381
13.1 Computer-aided diagnosis in mammography .............. 381
13.2 Tumor imaging and treatment .......................... 385
13.3 Angiography .......................................... 386
13.4 Bone strength and osteoporosis ....................... 388
13.5 Tortuosity ........................................... 389
14 Frontiers of image processing in medicine ................. 395
14.1 Trends ............................................... 395
14.2 The last word ........................................ 398
Appendix A The Fourier series and Fourier transform ....... 399
Appendix B Set theory and probability ..................... 405
Appendix C Shape and texture .............................. 423
Bibliography .............................................. 432
Index ..................................................... 440
The color plates are situated between pages 178 and 179.
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