Preface ........................................................ ix
Copyright Acknowledgements ..................................... xi
1 Introduction to Freshwater Algae ............................ 1
1.1 General introduction .................................... 1
1.1.1 Algae - an overview .............................. 1
1.1.2 Algae as primary producers ....................... 2
1.1.3 Freshwater environments .......................... 3
1.1.4 Planktonic and benthic algae ..................... 3
1.1.5 Size and shape ................................... 4
1.2 Taxonomic variation - the major groups of algae ......... 5
1.2.1 Microscopical appearance ......................... 8
1.2.2 Biochemistry and cell structure .................. 9
1.2.3 Molecular characterization and identification .... 9
1.3 Blue-green algae ....................................... 12
1.3.1 Cytology ........................................ 12
1.3.2 Morphological and taxonomic diversity ........... 13
1.3.3 Ecology ......................................... 15
1.3.4 Blue-green algae as bio-indicators .............. 17
1.4 Green algae ............................................ 17
1.4.1 Cytology ........................................ 17
1.4.2 Morphological diversity ......................... 17
1.4.3 Ecology ......................................... 18
1.4.4 Green algae as bioindicators .................... 21
1.5 Euglenoids ............................................. 21
1.5.1 Cytology ........................................ 22
1.5.2 Morphological diversity ......................... 22
1.5.3 Ecology ......................................... 23
1.5.4 Euglenoids as bioindicators ..................... 23
1.6 Yellow-green algae ..................................... 23
1.6.1 Cytology ........................................ 23
1.6.2 Morphological diversity ......................... 24
1.6.3 Ecology ......................................... 24
1.6.4 Yellow-green algae as bioindicators ............. 24
1.7 Dinoflagellates ........................................ 25
1.7.1 Cytology ........................................ 25
1.7.2 Morphological diversity ......................... 26
1.7.3 Ecology ......................................... 27
1.8 Cryptomonads ........................................... 28
1.8.1 Cytology ........................................ 28
1.8.2 Comparison with euglenoid algae ................. 29
1.8.3 Biodiversity .................................... 29
1.8.4 Ecology ......................................... 30
1.8.5 Cryptomonads as bioindicators ................... 30
1.9 Chrysophytes ........................................... 31
1.9.1 Cytology ........................................ 31
1.9.2 Morphological diversity ......................... 31
1.9.3 Ecology ......................................... 32
1.9.4 Chrysophytes as bioindicators ................... 32
1.10 Diatoms ................................................ 33
1.10.1 Cytology ........................................ 33
1.10.2 Morphological diversity ......................... 35
1.10.3 Ecology ......................................... 38
1.10.4 Diatoms as bioindicators ........................ 39
1.11 Red algae .............................................. 40
1.12 Brown algae ............................................ 40
2 Sampling, Biomass Estimation and Counts of Freshwater
Algae ....................................................... 41
PLANKTONIC ALGAE ....................................... 41
2.1 Protocol for collection ................................ 41
2.1.1 Standing water phytoplankton .................... 42
2.1.2 River phytoplankton ............................. 46
2.2 Mode of collection ..................................... 46
2.2.1 Phytoplankton trawl net ......................... 46
2.2.2 Volume samplers ................................. 48
2.2.3 Integrated sampling ............................. 49
2.2.4 Sediment traps .................................. 50
2.3 Phytoplankton biomass .................................. 51
2.3.1 Turbidity ....................................... 51
2.3.2 Dry weight and ash-free dry weight .............. 53
2.3.3 Pigment concentrations .......................... 53
2.4 Flow cytometry: automated analysis of phytoplankton
populations ............................................ 60
2.5 Microscope counts of species populations ............... 61
2.5.1 Sample preservation and processing .............. 61
2.5.2 Species counts .................................. 63
2.5.3 Conversion of species counts to biovolumes ...... 70
2.5.4 Chemical cleaning of diatoms .................... 75
2.6 Diversity within single-species populations ............ 76
2.6.1 Molecular analysis .............................. 76
2.6.2 Analytical microscopical techniques ............. 77
В. NON-PLANKTONIC ALGAE ........................................ 82
2.7 Deep water benthic algae ............................... 82
2.7.1 Benthic-pelagic coupling ........................ 83
2.7.2 Benthic algae and sediment stability ............ 84
2.7.3 Invertebrate grazing of benthic algae ........... 84
2.8 Shallow water communities .............................. 84
2.8.1 Substrate ....................................... 84
2.8.2 Algal communities ............................... 87
2.9 Algal biofilms ......................................... 89
2.9.1 Mucilaginous biofilms ........................... 89
2.9.2 Biomass ......................................... 89
2.9.3 Taxonomic composition ........................... 91
2.9.4 Matrix structure ................................ 93
2.10 Periphyton - algal mats ................................ 93
2.10.1 Inorganic substratum ............................ 93
2.10.2 Plant surfaces .................................. 95
3 Algae as Bioindicators ...................................... 99
3.1 Bioindicators and water quality ........................ 99
3.1.1 Biomarkers and bioindicators .................... 99
3.1.2 Characteristics of bioindicators ............... 100
3.1.3 Biological monitoring versus chemical
measurements ................................... 101
3.1.4 Monitoring water quality: objectives ........... 102
3.2 Lakes ................................................. 105
3.2.1 Contemporary planktonic and attached algae as
bioindicators .................................. 105
3.2.2 Fossil algae as bioindicators: lake sediment
analysis ....................................... 106
3.2.3 Water quality parameters: inorganic and
organic nutrients, acidity and heavy metals .... 110
3.3 Wetlands .............................................. 119
3.4 Rivers ................................................ 121
3.4.1 The periphyton community ....................... 121
3.4.2 River diatoms .................................. 121
3.4.3 Evaluation of the diatom community ............. 122
3.4.4 Human impacts and diatom indices ............... 123
3.4.5 Calculation of diatom indices .................. 126
3.4.6 Practical applications of diatom indices ....... 128
3.5 Estuaries ............................................. 133
3.5.1 Ecosystem complexity ........................... 133
3.5.2 Algae as estuarine bioindicators ............... 134
4 A Key to the More Frequently Occurring Freshwater Algae .... 137
4.1 Introduction to the key ............................... 137
4.1.1 Using the key .................................. 137
4.1.2 Morphological groupings ........................ 138
4.2 Key to the main genera and species .................... 138
4.3 List of algae included and their occurrence in the
key ................................................... 241
4.4 Algal identification: bibliography .................... 243
Glossary ................................................... 245
References ................................................. 255
Index ...................................................... 265
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