Foreword ..................................................... xvii
Preface ....................................................... xix
Acknowledgments ............................................... xxv
Contributors ................................................ xxvii
Abbreviations ................................................ xxxi
Section I Context and concepts: density, distance, and
division ............................................. 1
1 Regional integration, agglomeration, and income
distribution in East Asia .................................... 1
Nobuaki Hamaguchi
Production networks in East Asia ............................. 4
Regional income inequality .................................. 11
Discussion .................................................. 14
Notes ....................................................... 15
References .................................................. 16
Annex: Data for analysis of the China-Japan border effect ... 18
2 Geography of cluster-based industrial development ........... 19
Keijiro Otsuka and Tetsushi Sonobe
A theory of cluster-based industrial development ............ 20
Evidence from case studies .................................. 22
Evidence of changing industrial locations ................... 25
Policy implications ......................................... 30
Notes ....................................................... 30
References .................................................. 31
3 Rural clustering at incipient stages of economic
development: hand-weaving clusters in Lao PDR ............... 33
Akihiko Ohno
Market segregation at an incipient stage of development ..... 34
Hypotheses on the emergence of traders ...................... 35
Profile of the Lao PDR hand-loom industry ................... 36
Marketing and contractual arrangements ...................... 37
Weaving clusters and traders ................................ 40
Decline of trust ............................................ 44
Retailers as urban-based traders ............................ 45
Conclusions ................................................. 45
Notes ....................................................... 46
References .................................................. 46
4 Spatial networks, incentives, and the dynamics of village
economies: evidence from Indonesia .......................... 48
Futoshi Yamauchi Megumi Muto, Reno Dewina, and Sony
Sumaryanto
Data ........................................................ 49
Descriptive analyses ........................................ 50
Empirical framework ......................................... 58
Empirical results ........................................... 59
Policy discussion ........................................... 63
Conclusions ................................................. 63
Notes ....................................................... 64
References .................................................. 64
5 The Iskandar Development Region and Singapore ............... 66
Manu Bhaskaran
Background .................................................. 66
Key factors driving the relationship between the two
regions ..................................................... 67
Potential synergies between Singapore and the IDR ........... 71
The way forward ............................................. 75
Conclusion: can these obstacles be overcome? ................ 78
Notes ....................................................... 78
References .................................................. 78
6 Spatial integration and human transformations in the
Greater Mekong subregion .................................... 79
Jonathan Rigg and Chusak Wittayapak
The GMS: an idea becomes a subregion ........................ 79
Openness, progress, and inequality in the GMS ............... 81
Scales and sites: the empirics of spatial transformations
in the GMS .................................................. 83
Agents, agency, and impacts of spatial transformation in
the GMS ..................................................... 86
Policies and politics of spatial transformation ............. 92
Notes ....................................................... 95
References .................................................. 96
Section II Southeast Asia: Vietnam, the Philippines,
Indonesia, and Thailand ........................... 100
7 Rural development and issues in Vietnam: spatial
disparities and some recommendations ....................... 100
Dang Kim Son
Current spatial disparities and policy issues .............. 100
Disparities between rural and urban areas .................. 101
Regional disparities ....................................... 103
Causes of disparities ...................................... 109
Recommendations ............................................ 112
Notes ...................................................... 113
References ................................................. 113
8 Economic geography of Indonesia: location, connectivity,
and resources .............................................. 115
Hall Hill Budy P. Resosudarmo, and Yogi Vidyattama
Economic geography ......................................... 116
Regional economic growth and change ........................ 121
Regional inequality and convergence ........................ 125
Conclusions ................................................ 132
Notes ...................................................... 133
References ................................................. 134
9 Spatial considerations on decentralization and economies
of concentration in Indonesia .............................. 135
Francisco Javier Arze del Granado
Decentralization of expenditures, urban-to-rural
migration, and urban density in congested regions .......... 136
Agglomeration economies .................................... 143
Room for further decentralization and policy
implications ............................................... 146
Conclusions ................................................ 148
Notes ...................................................... 149
References ................................................. 151
Annex: Definition of the variables and estimation
results .................................................... 154
10 Spatial agglomeration, firm productivity, and government
policies in Indonesia: concentration and deconcentration
in the manufacturing sector ................................ 156
Ari Kuncoro
Evolution of the manufacturing industry's spatial
configuration in Java ...................................... 156
Choice of firm location .................................... 158
Empirical methodology: externalities and firm
decentralization ........................................... 162
Results .................................................... 164
Conclusions ................................................ 166
Notes ...................................................... 167
References ................................................. 168
11 Spatial disparities and development policy in the
Philippines ................................................ 169
Arsenio M. Balisacan, Hal Hill, and Sharon Faye Piza
Regional development patterns .............................. 171
Determinants of local growth and poverty reduction ......... 177
Conclusions ................................................ 179
Notes ...................................................... 180
References ................................................. 181
Annex: Determinants of growth and poverty reduction in
the Philippines: descriptive statistics .................... 183
12 Spatial disparities in Thailand: does government policy
aggravate or alleviate the problem? ........................ 184
Nitinant Wisaweisuan
Growth and spatial disparities ............................. 185
Explaining spatial disparities ............................. 186
Attempts to alleviate the problem .......................... 190
Conclusions ................................................ 194
Notes ...................................................... 194
References ................................................. 194
Section III Northeast Asia: China and the Republic of Korea ... 196
13 Reshaping economic geography in China ...................... 196
Yukon Huang and Xubei Luo
China's historic and geographic legacy ..................... 196
Accelerating growth: coordinating structural, incentive,
and fiscal policies ........................................ 198
Spatial factors and government policies: growth and
equity implications ........................................ 199
Looking to the future ...................................... 213
Notes ...................................................... 216
References ................................................. 216
14 The political economy of government policies toward
regional inequality in China ............................... 218
Yang Yao
Regional disparities in China .............................. 218
The path to the uneven development model ................... 223
Preferential government policies and economic geography .... 226
Recent government initiatives to reduce regional
disparities ................................................ 230
Alternative ways to address regional disparities ........... 235
Conclusions ................................................ 238
Notes ...................................................... 238
References ................................................. 238
15 Is China sacrificing growth when balancing interregional
and urban-rural development? ............................... 241
Zhao Chen and Ming Lu
Industrial agglomeration and city development .............. 242
China's urban-rural and interregional development: is
there a tradeoff between efficiency and equality? .......... 247
Interregional and urban-rural economic development:
policy adjustment and fiscal transfer ...................... 250
Conclusions and policy implications ........................ 253
Notes ...................................................... 255
References ................................................. 255
16 Industrial agglomeration and economic performance in
transitional China ......................................... 258
Canfei He
Theoretical understanding of industrial agglomeration in
China ...................................................... 258
Industrial agglomeration and industrial specialization
in China ................................................... 261
Industrial agglomeration and labor productivity in China ... 273
Industrial clusters in China: a county-level analysis ...... 277
Conclusions ................................................ 279
Note ....................................................... 280
References ................................................. 280
17 Capital allocation, regional specialization, and
spillover effects in China ................................. 282
Chong-En Bai and Xu Lin
Returns to capital across provinces ........................ 283
Regional specialization .................................... 285
Spatial factors behind productivity growth ................. 289
Conclusions ................................................ 291
Notes ...................................................... 292
References ................................................. 292
18 Coastal China's urban-rural spatial restructuring under
globalization .............................................. 294
Yue-man Yueng and Jianfa Shen
Guangdong and the Pearl River delta ........................ 296
Shanghai and the Yangtze River delta ....................... 304
The Bohai Bay region ....................................... 310
Conclusions ................................................ 315
Notes ...................................................... 317
References ................................................. 317
19 A history of the Republic of Korea's industrial
structural transformation and spatial development .......... 320
Sam Ock Park
Industrial policies, structural changes of industry, and
spatial transformation ..................................... 321
Spatial development and change ............................. 327
Policy implications ........................................ 334
Note ....................................................... 336
References ................................................. 336
Section IV Conclusion: lessons from experience ................ 338
20 Lessons from experience: reshaping economic geography
in East Asia ............................................... 338
Yukon Huang and Alessandro Magnoli Bocchi
Context: the rise of regionalism and the role of
production-sharing networks ................................ 338
Accompanied by increasing disparities ...................... 339
The new economic geography ................................. 339
Vietnam and Lao PDR: emerging spatial patterns at low
income levels .............................................. 341
Indonesia, the Philippines, and Thailand: diverse
settings and varied outcomes in three middle-income ASEAN
countries .................................................. 342
China: agglomeration, rapid growth, and major spatial
consequences Korea: from developing to developed status
and eventual equalization in living standards .............. 349
Lessons learned ............................................ 350
Notes ...................................................... 356
References ................................................. 357
Index ........................................................ 359
Boxes
5.1 Density, distance, and division: Singapore and
Johor .................................................... 67
6.1 Development through concentration? The Lao PDR
government's focal site strategy ......................... 90
18.1 Tianjin Binhai New District: the third pole in
China ................................................... 313
19.1 The case of Sunchang .................................... 335
Figures
1.1 East Asia's share of intraregional trade, 1980-2004 ....... 4
1.2 Composition of intraregional trade in East Asia, by
category of use, 1980-2004 ................................ 5
1.3 Regional production shares of information technology-
related goods, 2005 ....................................... 6
1.4 Triangular trade in East Asian electronics industry ....... 7
1.5 Framework for fragmentation ............................... 8
1.6 Modified framework for fragmentation ...................... 9
1.7 Structure of interregional trade between China and
Japan .................................................... 11
1.8 Share of East Asia's population living in
agglomerations greater than 750,000 inhabitants,
1950-2000 ................................................ 12
1.9 Rank-size rule of large agglomerations (population
over 750,000) in East Asia, 1950 and 2005 ................ 13
1.10 Nominal income per capita in select Asian economies,
1990 and 2005 ............................................ 14
1.11 Regional income inequality measured using the
coefficient of variation for select East Asian
countries, 1990-2004 ..................................... 15
2.1 Development of the motorcycle industry in Japan,
1945-65 .................................................. 23
3.1 The marketing process .................................... 38
3.2 Contractual arrangements along a "Make or Buy"
spectrum ................................................. 39
3.3 Map of survey sites in Lao PDR ........................... 41
4.1 Location of surveyed villages in Indonesia ............... 50
4.2 Change in average intervillage road quality (asphalt
roads as a proportion of all roads) in select
provinces of Indonesia ................................... 52
4.3 Per capita income growth in select villages of
Indonesia ................................................ 54
4.4 Change in nonagricultural income share in select
villages of Indonesia .................................... 54
4.5 Impact of change in the proportion of asphalt roads
at the subdistrict level on per capita income growth
and change in nonagricultural income in select
villages of Indonesia .................................... 55
4.6 Impact of years of schooling of household head on per
capita income growth and change in nonagricultural
income in select villages of Indonesia ................... 56
4.7 Self-employment activities, by province-level road
density in select villages of Indonesia .................. 57
4.8 Self-employment activities, by speed to district
center in select villages of Indonesia ................... 58
6.1 The Greater Mekong subregion ............................. 80
6.2 International migrant flows in the GMS ................... 91
7.1 Employment in Vietnam, by sector, 1988-2005 ............. 102
7.2 Urban and rural expenditure in Vietnam, 2002-06 ......... 102
7.3 Labor productivity in Vietnam, 1995-2006 ................ 104
7.4 Cereal production per capita in Vietnam, by region,
2006 .................................................... 105
7.5 Distribution of malnourished children under five
years of age in Vietnam ................................. 105
7.6 Source of migrants to Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City,
1999 .................................................... 107
7.7 Poverty rate and density in Vietnam ..................... 108
7.8 Inequality in Vietnam ................................... 109
7.9 Relation between GDP per capita and agricultural
value added in GDP in Vietnam ........................... 111
7.10 Total investment in the economy and in agriculture
in Vietnam, 1995-2005 ................................... 112
8.1 Structural change and growth in Indonesia,
1975-2004 ............................................... 125
8.2 Initial regional GDP with and without mining and
household consumption expenditure per capita vs.
growth in Indonesia, by province, 1975-2004 ............. 128
8.3 Provincial income inequality in Indonesia,
1975-2003 ............................................... 129
9.1 Net migration of population in Indonesia, by
districts, 2005 ......................................... 138
9.2 Simulation: Urban gravity at alternative distances
and levels of urbanization .............................. 139
9.3 Out-migration from large metropolitan districts to
the fringes in Indonesia ................................ 140
10.1 Java island and its vicinity ............................ 158
11.1 Regions of the Philippines, 2007 ........................ 170
11.2 Regional growth versus initial regional income .......... 172
11.3 Variation in provincial prices, 1985-2003 ............... 176
11.4 Income growth and poverty reduction, Philippine
provinces, 1985-2003 .................................... 177
12.1 GDP per capita in Thailand, 1980-2005 ................... 185
12.2 Absolute poverty and income distribution in
Thailand, 1990-2006 ..................................... 185
12.3 Regional share of GDP in Thailand, 1990-2005 ............ 186
12.4 Proportion of the poor people in Thailand, by
region, 1990-2004 ....................................... 186
12.5 GDP per capita in Thailand, by region, 1990-2005 ........ 187
12.6 Composition of regional GDP in Thailand, by region
and economic activity, 1981-2005 ........................ 188
12.7 Gini coefficient and economic growth in Thailand,
1981-2005 ............................................... 189
12.8 Allocation of the government budget in Thailand, by
region, 2003-06 ......................................... 192
12.9 Allocation of the government budget in Thailand, by
activity and region (excluding Bangkok and its
vicinities), 2001-06 .................................... 193
13.1 Regions and open cities in China ........................ 197
13.2 GDP growth in China, by region, 1981-2006 ............... 198
13.3 Ratio of total government revenue and expenditure to
GDP in China, 1980-2005 ................................. 201
13.4 Ratio of central government revenue and expenditure
to total government revenue and expenditure in
China, 1980-2005 ........................................ 202
13.5 Share of total investment in fixed assets in coastal
and inland areas of China, 1982-2007 .................... 202
13.6 Ratio of total provincial government expenditure to
regional GDP in coastal and inland regions of China,
1999-2006 ............................................... 203
13.7 Central transfers and GDP per capita in China at the
provincial level, 2004 .................................. 204
13.8 GDP per capita and ratio of central transfers to
subnational government expenditure at the provincial
level 2004 .............................................. 205
13.9 Subnational government expenditures per capita on
education and health care in coastal and inland
provinces of China, 1999-2006 ........................... 205
13.10 Relationship between growth in provincial GDP per
capita and adjusted distance from the major coastal
commercial areas in China, 1979-2003 .................... 206
13.11 Density of highways in China, 1978,1999, and 2003 ....... 207
13.12 Density of railways in China, 1978,1999, and 2003 ....... 208
13.13 Interprovincial migration flows to the coast in
China, 1995-2000 ........................................ 209
13.14 Income inequality in China, 1978-2004 ................... 210
13.15 Income growth in rural and urban areas of China,
1989-2004 ............................................... 212
13.16 Projected household income inequality in China,
1981-2021 ............................................... 216
14.1 Divergence of income among Chinese provinces,
1952-98 ................................................. 219
14.2 Divergence of income among Chinese provinces,
1999-2006 ............................................... 219
14.3 Divergence of growth rates among Chinese provinces,
1952-78 ................................................. 220
14.4 Divergence of growth rates among Chinese provinces,
1978-98 ................................................. 220
14.5 Divergence of growth rates among Chinese provinces,
1999-2006 ............................................... 220
14.6 Per capita GDP and urban-rural divide in China, 1999
and 2006 ................................................ 222
14.7 Interprovincial inequality in China, 1952-2004 .......... 223
14.8 Contribution of urban-rural divide and regional
divide to interprovincial inequality, 1952-2003 ......... 223
15.1 Industrial share in China, by province, 1987,1995,
and 2005 ................................................ 243
15.2 Globalization and industrial growth in China,
1987-2005 ............................................... 244
15.3 Urbanization and industrial growth in China,
1987-2005 ............................................... 245
15.4 Per capita GDP and industrial shares of cities in
China, 1991-2005 ........................................ 246
15.5 Population density and per capita GDP of cities in
China, 1991-2005 ........................................ 247
15.6 Urban-rural and interregional income disparities in
China, 1978-2005 ........................................ 248
15.7 Urban-rural income disparities and infringement
cases in China, 1981-2004 ............................... 249
15.8 Share of net fiscal transfers in China from the
central government, by geographic region, 1998-2004 ..... 253
15.9 Level of economic development and central fiscal
transfers, 1998-2004 .................................... 253
15.10 Changes in the share of agricultural expenditures,
1998-2004 ............................................... 254
15.11 Central fiscal transfers and economic growth ............ 254
16.1 Geographic concentration of manufacturing industries
in China, 1980-2004 ..................................... 262
16.2 Geographic agglomeration of industrial output of
globalized industries in China, 1980-2004 ............... 264
16.3 Provincial distribution of industrial output of
highly globalized industries in China ................... 265
16.4 Geographic agglomeration of domestic market-
oriented industries in China, 1980-2004 ................. 266
16.5 Provincial distribution of industrial output of
domestic market-oriented industries in China in
2004 .................................................... 267
16.6 Geographic agglomeration of favored and protected
industries by local governments in China,
1980-2004 ............................................... 268
16.7 Geographic agglomeration of less-protected and -
favored industries in China, 1980-2004 .................. 268
16.8 Provincial distribution of favored and protected
industries by local governments in China ................ 269
16.9 Provincial distribution of least-favored or -
protected industries in China ........................... 270
16.10 Relations between exports (panel A) and foreign
capital (panel B) and industrial agglomerations in
China in 2004 .......................................... 271
16.11 Relations between ratio of income tax and value-
added tax to sales revenue (panel A) and ratio of
total profits in sales revenue (panel B) and Gini
coefficient of three-digit industries in 2004 .......... 272
16.12 Relation between ratio of state capital to total
capital and Gini coefficient of three-digit
industries in 2004 ..................................... 273
16.13 Relationship between industrial agglomeration
(weighted Gini coefficients across industries) and
industrial specialization (weighted Gini
coefficients across provinces) ......................... 273
16.14 Temporal changes of industrial specialization in
centrally administered municipalities of China,
1980-2004 .............................................. 274
16.15 Temporal changes of industrial specialization in
select coastal provinces of China, 1980-2004 ........... 274
16.16 Temporal changes of industrial specialization in
select western provinces of China, 1980-2004 ............ 275
16.17 Temporal changes of industrial specialization in
central provinces of China, 1980-2004 ................... 275
16.18 Spatial distribution of manufacturing employment in
China, by county, 2004 .................................. 277
16.19 Spatial distribution of employment in
telecommunications equipment, computers, and other
electronic equipment in China, by county, 2004 .......... 278
17.1 Returns to capital in China, by province,
1978-2005 ............................................... 284
17.2 Standard deviation of returns to capital across
provinces in China, 1978-2005 ........................... 284
17.3 Average of Hoover coefficients across regions in
China, 1999-2003 ........................................ 287
17.4 Average (across time) Hoover coefficient in China,
by region ............................................... 287
18.1 Three coastal regions in China .......................... 296
18.2 The Pearl River delta region and its constituent
cities .................................................. 299
18.3 Urban cluster-coordinated development plan of the
Pearl River delta, 2020 ................................. 301
19.1 Administrative divisions of Korea: provinces, mega
cities, and provincial cities ........................... 321
19.2 Four regions, nine provinces, and major cities in
Korea ................................................... 322
19.3 A brief history of Korean industrial policies ........... 323
19.4 Inward and outward FDI in Korea, 1981-2006 .............. 326
19.5 Share of population in Korea, by region, 1970-2004 ...... 328
19.6 Entropy index ........................................... 329
19.7 Annual growth rate of GDP in Korea, 1960-2005 ........... 330
19.8 Regional GDP in Korea, by region, 1985-2003 ............. 330
19.9 Per capita regional GDP in Korea, by region,
1985-2005 ............................................... 331
20.1 Provincial disparities: human development indexes
in East Asia ............................................ 353
20.2 Share of subnational government expenditure in
total government expenditure in East Asia during
the 1990s ............................................... 355
20.3 Coefficient of variation in provincial per capita
revenues before and after transfers in select East
Asian countries ......................................... 355
Tables
1.1 Intraregional trade of intermediate goods in East
Asia, 1995, 2000, and 2005 ................................ 5
1.2 Transactions of semiconductors and integrated circuits
in East Asia, 2000 ........................................ 6
1.3 Gravity model estimates of China-Japan intraregional
trade .................................................... 10
2.1 An endogenous model of cluster-based industrial
development .............................................. 20
2.2 Major features of the machine tool enterprises in
Taichung, Taiwan, China .................................. 23
2.3 Transition to quality improvement: Average
enterprise size and marketing channels in Wenzhou,
China, 1999,1995, and 2000 ............................... 24
2.4 Share of manufacturing employment and annual growth
rates of employment in Taiwan, China, by industry ........ 26
2.5 Changes in employment shares in Taiwan, China, by
area and industry, 1976,1986, and 1996 ................... 27
2.6 Average number of enterprises and workers and real
value of production per sample township in Jiangsu
and Zhejiang provinces, China, by location, 1990,
1996, and 2002 ........................................... 29
2.7 Share of production and employment of the most
important industry in the township in Jiangsu and
Zhejiang provinces, China, by area, 1990,1996, and
2002 ..................................................... 29
3.1 Trust of villagers in various economic agents in
Lao PDR .................................................. 35
3.2 Source of income of rural households in Lao PDR .......... 36
3.3 Post-contractual problems under the different
contracting systems ...................................... 39
3.4 Surveyed clusters in Lao PDR ............................. 40
3.5 Social characteristics of the large-scale master
weavers surveyed in Lao PDR .............................. 42
4.1 Proportion of asphalt roads in intervillage roads in
Indonesia, 1996 and 2006 ................................. 51
4.2 Changes in intervillage road quality (asphalt,
concrete, or cone block or not) in Indonesia, by
province, 1996-2006 ...................................... 52
4.3 Distance to economic centers in select villages of
Indonesia ................................................ 53
4.4 Descriptive statistics: household income,
nonagricultural income share, landholding, and
education in select villages of Indonesia ................ 54
4.5 Provincial averages: household income,
nonagricultural income share, landholding, and
education in Indonesia ................................... 55
4.6 Nonagricultural income share and share of
households with self-employment activity in select
villages of Indonesia, by distance from economic
centers .................................................. 56
4.7 Type of self-employment activities in select
villages of Indonesia, by distance to economic
centers .................................................. 57
4.8 Change in average road quality and per capita income
growth in select villages of Indonesia ................... 60
4.9 Change in average road quality and nonagricultural
income share in select villages of Indonesia ............. 61
4.10 Change in average road quality and nonfarm
self-employment income share in select villages of
Indonesia ................................................ 62
4.11 Summary of parameter signs in select villages of
Indonesia ................................................ 62
5.1 Share of Singapore foreign direct investment in
Asia, by country, select years, 1996-2005 ................ 67
5.2 Comparison of Singapore and the IDR ...................... 68
5.3 Economic growth before and after the Asian financial
crisis, by country, 1991-2006 ............................ 71
5.4 Benefits of relocating and undertaking complementary
activities ............................................... 73
5.5 Competitiveness indicators for Malaysia and
Singapore ................................................ 75
6.1 Openness, progress, and inequality in the GMS,
1990-2006 ................................................ 82
6.2 Incidence of poverty in Lao PDR, by ethnolinguistic
family, 2001 ............................................. 84
6.3 Rural and urban distribution of poverty based on
national poverty lines, various years .................... 84
6.4 Annualized growth rates of per capita expenditure
and income, by country and quintile ...................... 85
6.5 Expanded trade flows in the Greater Mekong subregion
two-way trade ............................................ 85
6.6 Effects of improved roads and transport .................. 88
6.7 Decline in the availability of nontimber forest
products in Ban Nong Hin, Champassak province, Lao
PDR, 1989-99 ............................................. 89
6.8 Distilling the GMS "success factors" ..................... 93
7.1 GDP growth rate and GDP per capita in Vietnam, by
ecological zone ......................................... 101
7.2 Average living expenditure in urban and rural areas
of Vietnam, 2006 ........................................ 103
7.3 Energy in the Vietnamese diet in rural and urban
areas, 2000 ............................................. 103
7.4 Income and health indicators in the plains and
highlands of Vietnam, 2004 .............................. 103
7.5 Living standards in the highlands and plains of
Vietnam, 2004 ........................................... 104
7.6 Labor and migration situation in Vietnam, 2004 .......... 106
7.7 Economic growth rate in Vietnam, by province, 2006 ...... 107
7.8 Poverty in Vietnam, by region, 2004 ..................... 109
7.9 Investment in Vietnam, by region ........................ 110
7.10 Accessibility of infrastructure in Vietnam, by
region, 2004 ............................................ 110
7.11 Structure of GDP and economic development in
Vietnam, by region, 2006 ................................ 111
7.12 Effective rate of protection in Vietnam, by sector,
1997-2003 ............................................... 111
8.1 Shares of regional GDP with and without mining and
household consumption expenditure in Indonesia, by
province, various years, 1975-2004 ...................... 118
8.2 Regional GDP with and without mining and household
consumption expenditure per capita in Indonesia, by
province, various years, 1975-2004 ...................... 119
8.3 Annual growth rates of regional GDP with and
without mining and household consumption
expenditure per capita in Indonesia, by province,
1976-2004 ............................................... 122
8.4 Social and demographic indicators in Indonesia, by
province, 1971 and 2000 ................................. 126
8.5 Indicators of social vulnerability in Indonesia, by
province, various years, 1971-2004 ...................... 127
8.6 Absolute convergence .................................... 129
9.1 Urban and rural population and population growth
rate in Indonesia, 1960-2005 ............................ 137
9.2 Determinants of districts'net migration ................. 139
9.3 Population dynamics: public expenditures and net
migration in Indonesia .................................. 141
9.4 Population convergence .................................. 142
9.5 Distribution of population in Indonesia, by
district, province, and island, 1983 and 2005 ........... 142
9.6 Number of people relocated under Indonesia's
transmigration program .................................. 142
9.7 Population and annual population growth in
Indonesia, 2000 and 2005 ................................ 143
9.8 Composition and concentration of employment, by
sector .................................................. 144
10.1 Comparison of high-income per capita and low-income
per capita regions in Java, select years,
1986-2003 ............................................... 157
10.2 Ratio of local GDP per capita to Jakarta's GDP in
Java, select years, 1986-2003 ........................... 158
10.3 Spatial concentration of manufacturing GDP in Java,
select years, 1986-2003 ................................. 158
10.4 Fraction of manufacturing value added in local GDP
in Java, select years, 1986-2003 ........................ 159
10.5 Fraction of villages with paved roads in Java,
select years, 1986-2000 ................................ 159
10.6 Concentration of manufacturing firms in Java,
select years, 1980-2003 ................................. 160
10.7 Concentration of manufacturing employment in Java,
select years, 1980-2003 ................................. 161
10.8 District industrial concentration index in Java,
select years, 1990-2003 ................................. 161
10.9 Change in the district industrial concentration
index in Java, 1990-2003 ................................ 162
10.10 Annual growth of stock of firms and labor
employment in large and medium manufacturing
enterprises in Java, 1990-2003 .......................... 162
10.11 Externality and productivity in Java: textiles,
garments, leather, and footwear, 1990-2003 .............. 164
10.12 Externality and productivity in Java: chemicals,
1990-2003 ............................................... 165
10.13 Externality and productivity in Java: nonmetallic
minerals, 1990-2003 ..................................... 165
10.14 Externality and productivity in Java: machinery,
1990-2003 ............................................... 165
10.15 Test of dynamic externalities in Java, 1990-95 .......... 166
11.1 Regional growth and structure in the Philippines,
by region, 1975-2005 .................................... 171
11.2 Key economic indicators in the Philippines, by
region, 1988 and 2003 ................................... 172
11.3 Social indicators in the Philippines, by region,
1988 and 2003 ........................................... 173
11.4 Population and intraregional migration in the
Philippines, by region, 2000 ............................ 174
11.5 Infrastructure indicators in the Philippines, by
region, 1988 and 2004 or 2005 ........................... 175
11.6 Determinants of local growth and poverty reduction
in the Philippines ...................................... 178
12.1 Economic indicators in Thailand, 1980-2005 .............. 185
12.2 Urban-rural income gap in Thailand measured by per
capita income, 1994-2004 ................................ 186
12.3 Per capita regional GDP in Thailand, 1990-2005 .......... 187
12.4 Gini coefficient of consumption spending in
Thailand, by region, 1988-2006 .......................... 190
12.5 Openness and income distribution in Thailand,
1995-2005 ............................................... 190
12.6 Net inflows of foreign direct investment in
Thailand, 1970-2006 ..................................... 191
12.7 Major emphasis of national economic and development
plans in Thailand ....................................... 191
12.8 Ratio of Q5 to Ql in Thailand, by region,
1994-2004 ............................................... 192
12.9 Availability of health care resources in Thailand,
by region ............................................... 193
12.10 Proportion of the poor in Thailand, by education of
the head of household, 1996-2004 ........................ 193
13.1 GDP growth rates of central and western regions as
a percentage of the coastal region in China,
1980-2006 ............................................... 212
14.1 Convergence of growth rates among the three regions
in China, 1978-2006 ..................................... 221
14.2 Comparison of the three richest and the three
poorest provinces in China, 2006 ........................ 222
14.3 Urban-rural and regional divides in China, 2005 ......... 222
14.4 Central government capital investment, 1953-2005 ........ 227
14.5 Net transfers received from the central government,
1953-2005 ............................................... 228
14.6 Preferential policies offered to different zones ........ 229
14.7 Policy versus geography: Regression results ............. 230
14.8 Comparison of the western region and the country,
2000-05 ................................................. 232
14.9 Composite tax rates of inland and coastal regions ....... 237
14.10 Marginal contribution of public investments to
regional income inequality .............................. 237
15.1 Historical development of opening areas ................. 251
16.1 Gini coefficient of manufacturing industries in
China in select years, 1980-2004 ........................ 263
16.2 Regression analysis of the relationship between
productivity and industrial agglomeration for
two-digit industries in China, 1980-93 .................. 276
17.1 Variable mean and rank .................................. 288
17.2 Pair-wise correlations between main variables ........... 288
17.3 Estimation results with dependent variable:
LogitHoover ............................................. 288
17.4 Estimation results with dependent variable
ln( TFP) ................................................ 291
18.1 Demographic and GDP indicators of Guangzhou,
Shenzhen, Shanghai, Beijing, and China, 1980-2005 ....... 297
18.2 Share of secondary and tertiary industries in GDP,
exports, and realized foreign capital in Guangzhou,
Shenzhen, Shanghai, Beijing, and China, 1980-2005 ....... 298
18.3 Distribution of population in Shanghai, 2006 ............ 307
18.4 Industrial distribution in Shanghai, 2006 ............... 308
18.5 Population and GDP density in the Yangtze River
delta region, 2005 ...................................... 309
18.6 Comparison of the three coastal regions in China,
2005 .................................................... 311
18.7 Major indicators of the JJJ city-region, 2005 ........... 312
18.8 Employment in three cities of China, 2005 ............... 314
19.1 Structure of production in Korea, by sector,
1960-2005 ............................................... 323
19.2 Share of manufacturing industry in Korea, by type
of firm, 1981-2005 ...................................... 324
19.3 Share of manufacturing employment in Korea, by
region, 1963-2005 ....................................... 325
19.4 Share of population in Korea, by region, 1970-2005 ...... 329
19.5 Share of headquarters and plants of top 100 firms
in Korea, by region, 2002 and 2007 ...................... 332
19.6 Share of industrial patents in Korea, by region,
1995, 2000, and 2005 .................................... 332
19.7 Regional GDP per capita in the capital region of
Korea, 1985-2005 ........................................ 333
19.8 Share of dot-kr domains in Korea, by region,
2001-07 ................................................. 334
20.1 Key indicators for growth, urbanization, and income
distribution in East Asia, by country, various
years ................................................... 339
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