Preface ......................................................... v
About international polar year ................................ vii
Contributors ................................................. xvii
1 Introduction to the limnology of high-latitude lake and
river ecosystems............................................. 1
Warwick F. Vincent, John E. Hobbie, and Johanna
Laybourn-Parry
Outline ...................................................... 1
1.1 Introduction ............................................ 1
1.2 History of polar limnology .............................. 4
1.3 Limnological diversity .................................. 5
1.4 Controlling variables for biological production ......... 7
1.4.1 Water supply ..................................... 7
1.4.2 Irradiance ....................................... 8
1.4.3 Low temperature .................................. 8
1.4.4 Nutrient supply .................................. 9
1.4.5 Benthic communities .............................. 9
1.5 Food webs in polar lakes ............................... 10
1.6 Polar lakes and global change .......................... 12
1.6.1 Physical thresholds ............................. 12
1.6.2 Biogeochemical thresholds ....................... 13
1.6.3 Biological thresholds ........................... 13
1.7 Conclusions ............................................ 14
Acknowledgements ............................................ 14
References .................................................. 14
Appendix 1.1 ................................................ 18
2 Origin and geomorphology of lakes in the polar regions ...... 25
Reinhard Pienitz, Peter T. Doran, and Scott F.
Lamoureux
Outline ..................................................... 25
2.1 Introduction ........................................... 25
2.2 Lake origins ........................................... 26
2.2.1 Wetlands ........................................ 26
2.2.2 Ice-dependent lakes ............................. 27
2.2.3 Postglacial lakes ............................... 28
2.2.4 Thermokarst lakes and ponds ..................... 30
2.2.5 Coastal uplift systems .......................... 31
2.2.6 Meteoritic impact crater lakes .................. 32
2.2.7 Volcanic lakes .................................. 32
2.2.8 Karst systems ................................... 34
2.2.9 Tectonic lakes .................................. 34
2.2.10 Lakes of other origins .......................... 34
2.3 Geographical regions ................................... 35
2.3.1 The circumpolar Arctic .......................... 35
2.3.2 Coastal Antarctic lakes ......................... 35
2.3.3 Antarctic and Arctic subglacial lakes ........... 36
2.4 Effects of landscape evolution and climate change on
polar lakes ............................................ 37
2.5 Conclusions ............................................ 38
Acknowledgments ........................................ 38
References .................................................. 38
3 High-latitude paleolimnology ................................ 43
Dominic A. Hodgson and John P. Smol
Outline ..................................................... 43
3.1 Introduction ........................................... 43
3.1.1 Why study paleolimnology at high latitudes? ..... 43
3.2 Lake geomorphology and ontogeny ........................ 45
3.2.1 Geomorphology ................................... 45
3.2.2 Lake ontogeny ................................... 47
3.2.3 Origin of the lake biota ........................ 48
3.3 Applied studies: tracking environmental change ......... 49
3.3.1 Climate change .................................. 49
3.3.2 Regional vegetation change ...................... 51
3.3.3 Reconstructing sea-level change ................. 51
3.3.4 Tracking past fish and wildlife populations ..... 53
3.3.5 Changes in UV radiation ......................... 53
3.3.6 Atmospheric and terrestrial pollutants .......... 55
3.4 Synthesis studies ...................................... 55
3.5 Prospects .............................................. 56
3.5.1 Paleolimnology of subglacial lakes .............. 56
3.5.2 Paleolimnology of earlier interglacial
periods ......................................... 56
3.5.3 Paleolimnology of extreme environments .......... 59
3.6 Conclusions ............................................ 59
Acknowledgments ............................................. 59
References .................................................. 60
4 The physical limnology of high-latitude lakes ............... 65
Warwick F. Vincent, Sally Maclntyre, Robert H. Spigel,
and Isabelle Laurion
Outline ..................................................... 65
4.1 Introduction ........................................... 65
4.2 Snow and ice dynamics .................................. 66
4.3 Underwater radiation ................................... 67
4.4 Stratification regimes ................................. 70
4.5 Hydrological balance and flow pathways under the ice ... 72
4.6 Mixing and circulation beneath the ice ................. 73
4.7 Mixing and flow paths during ice-off and open-water
conditions: Alaskan lakes .............................. 74
4.8 Stratification and mixing beneath perennial ice:
McMurdo Dry Valley lakes ............................... 77
4.9 Conclusions ............................................ 79
Acknowledgments ............................................. 80
References .................................................. 80
5 High-latitude rivers and streams ............................ 83
Diane M. McKnight, Michael N. Gooseff, Warwick F.
Vincent, and Bruce J. Peterson
Outline ..................................................... 83
5.1 Introduction ........................................... 83
5.2 Antarctic streams ...................................... 84
5.3 Case study: effect of flow restoration on microbial
mats and ecosystem processes ........................... 88
5.4 Arctic streams ......................................... 89
5.5 Case study: long-term effect of nutrient enrichment .... 90
5.6 Large Arctic rivers .................................... 93
5.7 Arctic flood-plain lakes ............................... 95
5.8 Comparison of Arctic and Antarctic fluvial
ecosystems ............................................. 96
5.8.1 Stream discharge ................................ 96
5.8.2 Stream ecosystems ............................... 97
5.9 Conclusions ............................................ 97
Acknowledgments ............................................. 98
References .................................................. 98
6 Ice-based freshwater ecosystems ............................ 103
Ian Hawes, Clive Howard-Williams, and Andrew
G. Fountain
Outline .................................................... 103
6.1 Introduction .......................................... 103
6.2 Ecosystems on and in glacial ice ...................... 104
6.2.1 Types of glacier-based ecosystem ............... 104
6.2.2 Cryoconite holes ............................... 104
6.2.2.1 Physical processes in cryoconite
holes ................................. 105
6.2.2.2 Ecosystem processes in cryoconite
holes ................................. 105
6.2.3 Supraglacial pools and streams ................. 106
6.3 Ecosystems on floating ice shelves .................... 107
6.3.1 Types of ice-shelf ecosystem ................... 107
6.3.2 Physical processes in ice-shelf ponds .......... 108
6.3.3 Ecosystem processes in ice-shelf ponds ......... 109
6.4 Lake-ice ecosystems ................................... 111
6.4.1 Introduction ................................... 111
6.4.2 Physical processes in lake ice ................. 112
6.4.3 Ecosystem processes in lake ice ................ 112
6.5 The significance of ice-based systems ................. 113
6.6 Conclusions ........................................... 114
Acknowledgments ............................................ 115
References ................................................. 115
7 Antarctic subglacial water: origin, evolution, and
ecology .................................................... 119
John C. Priscu, Slawek Tulaczyk, Michael Studinger,
Mahlon С. Kennicutt II, Brent C. Christner, and
Christine M. Foreman
Outline .................................................... 119
7.1 Introduction .......................................... 119
7.2 Antarctic subglacial lakes and rivers: distribution,
origin, and hydrology ................................. 120
7.2.1 Distribution ................................... 120
7.2.2 Origin ......................................... 121
7.2.3 Hydrology ...................................... 123
7.3 Antarctic ice streams: regions of dynamic liquid
water movement that influence ice-sheet dynamics ...... 124
7.4 Subglacial environments as habitats for life and
reservoirs of organic carbon .......................... 125
7.4.1 Lake Vostok .................................... 125
7.4.2 Microbial ecology of icy environments .......... 128
7.4.3 Subglacial environments as reservoirs of
organic carbon ................................. 130
Acknowledgments ............................................ 132
References ................................................. 132
8 Biogeochemical processes in high-latitude lakes and
rivers ..................................................... 137
W. Berry Lyons and Jacques C. Finlay
Outline .................................................... 137
8.1 Introduction .......................................... 137
8.2 Carbon cycle .......................................... 139
8.2.1 Inorganic carbon dynamics ...................... 139
8.2.2 Dissolved organic carbon dynamics .............. 140
8.3 Nutrient cycling ...................................... 142
8.4 Geochemical linkages .................................. 147
8.5 Future responses to a warming climate ................. 148
8.5.1 Hydrologic change .............................. 149
8.5.2 Direct effects of rising temperatures .......... 149
8.5.3 Permafrost thaw ................................ 150
8.6 Conclusions ........................................... 151
Acknowledgments ............................................ 152
References ................................................. 152
9 Phytoplankton and primary production ....................... 157
Michael P. Lizotte
Outline .................................................... 157
9.1 Introduction .......................................... 157
9.2 Photosynthetic plankton ............................... 157
9.2.1 Photosynthetic bacteria ........................ 159
9.2.2 Eukaryotic phytoplankton ....................... 160
9.2.3 Ciliates ....................................... 161
9.3 Biomass ............................................... 162
9.4 Primary production .................................... 166
9.5 Environmental stressors ............................... 172
9.6 Conclusions ............................................ 174
Acknowledgments ............................................ 175
References ................................................. 175
10 Benthic primary production in polar lakes and rivers ....... 179
Antonio Quesada, Eduardo Fernandez-Valiente, Ian
Hawes, and Clive Howard-Williams
Outline .................................................... 179
10.1 Introduction .......................................... 179
10.2 Types of benthic community ............................ 180
10.2.1 Microbial mats ................................. 180
10.2.1.1 Benthic communities in perennially
ice-covered lakes ..................... 180
10.2.1.2 The benthic flora of McMurdo Dry
Valley lakes .......................... 181
10.2.1.3 Mats in seasonally ice-covered
freshwater ecosystems ................. 184
10.2.2 Aquatic mosses ................................. 185
10.2.3 Benthic communities in running waters .......... 187
10.3 Benthic primary production ............................ 188
10.4 Conclusions ........................................... 192
Acknowledgments ............................................ 193
References ................................................. 193
11 Heterotrophic microbial processes in polar lakes ........... 197
John E. Hobbie and Johanna Laybourn-Parry
Outline .................................................... 197
11.1 Introduction .......................................... 197
11.2 Food webs ............................................. 198
11.3 Bacteria .............................................. 198
11.4 Photosynthetic plankton: autotrophs and mixotrophs .... 199
11.5 Heterotrophic microplankton: flagellates, ciliates,
and rotifers .......................................... 200
11.6 Viruses ............................................... 201
11.7 Microbial heterotrophic processes and controls ........ 202
11.8 Carbon and microbial heterotrophy ..................... 208
11.9 Conclusions ........................................... 209
References ................................................. 210
12 Microbial biodiversity and biogeography .................... 213
David A. Pearce and Pierre E. Galand
Outline .................................................... 213
12.1 Microbial biodiversity ................................ 213
12.2 Bacteria .............................................. 215
12.3 Cyanobacteria ......................................... 218
12.4 Archaea ............................................... 218
12.5 Eukaryotes ............................................ 218
12.6 Viruses ............................................... 221
12.7 Survival .............................................. 221
12.8 Dispersal ............................................. 222
12.9 Biogeography .......................................... 223
12.10 Endemism ............................................. 225
12.11 Conclusions .......................................... 225
Acknowledgments ............................................ 226
References ................................................. 226
13 Zooplankton and zoobenthos in high-latitude water bodies ... 231
Milla Rautio, Ian Л.Е. Bayly, John A.E. Gibson, and
Marjut Nyman
Outline .................................................... 231
13.1 Introduction .......................................... 231
13.2 The origin of polar fauna ............................. 232
13.3 Species diversity between poles ....................... 234
13.4 Habitats and their key species ........................ 236
13.4.1 Lakes and ponds ................................ 236
13.4.2 Saline standing waters ......................... 238
13.4.3 Rivers and streams ............................. 239
13.5 Implications of climate change ........................ 242
13.5.1 Temperature .................................... 242
13.5.2 UV radiation ................................... 243
13.6 Conclusions ........................................... 245
References ................................................. 245
14 Fish in high-latitude Arctic lakes ......................... 249
Michael Power, James D. Reist, and J. Brian Dempson
Outline .................................................... 249
14.1 Introduction .......................................... 249
14.2 Fish population structure in Arctic lakes ............. 251
14.3 Adaptations for high-latitude life .................... 252
14.4 Arctic char, Salvelinus alpinus ....................... 253
14.5 Lake char, Salvelinus namaycush ....................... 261
14.6 Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar .......................... 262
14.7 The coregonines ....................................... 263
14.8 Other species ......................................... 264
14.9 Conclusions ........................................... 264
Acknowledgments ............................................ 265
References ................................................. 265
15 Food-web relationships and community structures in
high-latitude lakes ........................................ 269
Kirsten S. Christoffersen, Erik Jeppesen, Daryl L.
Moorhead, and Lars J. Tranvik
Outline .................................................... 269
15.1 Introduction .......................................... 269
15.1.1 Why study high-latitude lake food webs? ........ 269
15.1.2 Commonalities and differences between Arctic
and Antarctic lakes ............................ 270
15.2 Food webs ............................................. 271
15.2.1 Structural features ............................ 271
15.2.2 Continental Antarctic lakes .................... 272
15.2.3 Maritime Antarctic and Sub-Antarctic lakes ..... 272
15.2.4 Arctic lakes ................................... 275
15.2.5 Benthic and pelagic production and the role
in the food web ................................ 276
15.3 Climate as a stressor ................................. 279
15.4 Case studies .......................................... 281
15.4.1 Energy flow in Ace Lake and Lake Fryxell,
Antarctica ..................................... 281
15.4.2 Reverse spatial subsidies model for Antarctic
landscapes ..................................... 282
15.4.3 Nine years' monitoring of two small lakes in
northeast Greenland ............................ 283
15.5 Conclusions ........................................... 285
Acknowledgments ............................................ 285
References ................................................. 285
16 Direct human impacts on high-latitude lakes and rivers ..... 291
Martin J. Riddle and Derek C.G. Muir
Outline .................................................... 291
16.1 Introduction .......................................... 291
16.2 Physical impacts ...................................... 293
16.3 Chemical impacts ...................................... 294
16.3.1 Chemical contamination in Antarctica ........... 294
16.3.2 Acidifying substances and nutrients ............ 295
16.3.3 Heavy metals ................................... 296
16.3.4 Radionuclides .................................. 298
16.3.5 Petroleum hydrocarbons ......................... 299
16.3.6 Combustion-related hydrocarbons and
particles ...................................... 299
16.3.7 Persistent organic pollutants .................. 299
16.4 Conclusions ........................................... 301
Acknowledgments ............................................ 301
References ................................................. 302
17 Future directions in polar limnology ...................... 307
Johanna Laybourn-Parry and Warwick F. Vincent
Outline .................................................... 307
17.1 Introduction .......................................... 307
17.2 Wireless networks ..................................... 308
17.3 Underwater sensors and imaging systems ................ 309
17.4 Surface imagery ....................................... 310
17.5 Environmental genomics ................................ 311
17.6 Extremophiles and bioprospecting ...................... 312
17.7 Model development ..................................... 313
17.8 Conclusions ........................................... 314
References ................................................. 314
Glossary ...................................................... 317
Index ......................................................... 321
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